Paolo Xella 2014 Dieux
Xella 2014 Dieux
“Dieux et cultes en Syro-Palestine.
Idéologies « religieuses » entre Ugarit et le monde phénicien”,
Ugarit-Forschungen 45, pp. 525-535
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Extended summary of Xella 2014 Dieux
The author deals with a comparison between the religious ideology of Syria-Palestine in the Late Bronze Age (as reflected in the Ugaritic evidence) and the Phoenician religious tradition of the Iron Age, and focuses in this paper on some peculiar religious aspects attested in the documentation of Ugarit/Ras Shamra. The paper is introduced by a caveat: in the interpretation of ancient religious practices it is important to avoid a superimposition of modern ideology (stemming from the Judaeo-Christian milieu) on ancient texts produced by cultures «who did not own or do not even have the term in question: religion» (p. 525).
A first statement is placed at the beginning of paragraph 2: «In traditional societies (including those of ancient world), “religious” ideology is simply ideology. The sphere – conceptual and practical – which appears to us to be very distinct from the others, resulting from a categorization based on the dichotomy (which is very familiar to us) “sacred”/”profane” represents, on the other hand, in other societies, a total and totalizing dimension, organized according to criteria different from ours» (p. 526). «Other cultures thus reveal a Weltanschauung which encompasses not only the cosmogony and the principles of universal order, but also the political, social and economic architecture of the community of men» (p. 526). It is impossible to detach in ancient world the religious and the socio-political spheres, two realities which strongly merged and interacted.
According to the author, the ancient polytheisms are symbolic system based on a structural complexity and a specific dynamism of interaction: the action of gods was reflected on both a social and individual floor, and its expression is embedded in mythology and cults. Each specific god represented an aspect of the cosmic and natural reality and all the gods are systematized into an organic and structured pantheon reflecting the human sphere.
This contribution is a comparison of the Ugaritic pantheon with those of the Phoenician sites of Byblos, Sidon, and Tyre; furthermore, the author investigates also some morphological aspects of some gods, the origin and diffusion of ‘mythologems’ related to dead and resurrected gods, ending with a reflection about the continuity/discontinuity of religious ideology and cultic practices in antiquity.
Paragraph 3 describes the structure of Ugaritic pantheon: sub-paragraph 3.1 deals with a short history of the development of the main divine figures at Ugarit, structured in an organic system involving specific names, epithets, hierarchical relationships between gods, genealogies, functions, alliances and antagonisms between gods, filiations, worshipping places (often mythical), gods’ prerogatives and spheres of influence. What seems to be striking in Ugaritic pantheon is the absence of a gods regarded and conceived as stronger than others: nevertheless, two gods can be placed at the top of the Ugaritic pantheon, i.e. the creator god Ilu and the young and strong Baalu, the polyad god at Ugarit (also known as Haddou). After a passage dealing with the different interpretation of Baalu with other gods, the author presents the female figures of Athiratu (Ilu’s consort) and of Anatu, fighting to bring back Baalu’s (her brother) body from the Underworld.
Sub-paragraph 3.2 focuses on the aforementioned Phoenician cities, pointing out how we cannot relate on primary, textual sources of the 1st millennium BC, but only on later (Greek and Roman) second-hand reports. Giving the fact that each Phoenician city retained a specific pantheon, probably to mark to unique identity of each place, it is impossible to reconstruct a general ‘Phoenician pantheon’. Nevertheless, some common traits can be outlined: the existence of a main god, Baal (also called Adon), and of a main goddess, Baalat. At Byblos, a city which got entertained many contacts with Egypt, the polyad goddess was Ashtart, also called ‘Baalat of Byblos’, identified with the Egyptian Hathor and Isis. Baal was also worshipped at Byblos (later called in Classical sources Adonis), and received also some specific epithets, like Baal Shamem (connected to the sky), and Baal Addir (‘Mighty Lord’), a chthonian entity. At Sidon, already in the Late Bronze Age, it is attested the god diškur (probably to be assimilated to the Ugaritic Baalu), the Storm god, together with Ashtart; during the Iron Age, the sources mention the couple ‘Baal of Sidon’ and again Ashtart, while the polyad god can be recognized with Eshmun, a warrior deity (elsewhere also an healing god, whose name is also attested on a New Kingdom Egyptian medical papyrus, the London Medical Papyrus). At Tyre, it is attested a Storm god (in the 2nd millennium BC) and the god Melqart, literally ‘the king of the city’, the protector of the town.
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Excerpts from Xella 2014 Dieux
NOTE: in the excerpts, some of the headings (the bolded ones) were assigned by the author of the present page.
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Death of gods
| Death of gods | pp. 526-527 | As the history of religions teaches us, the gods of polytheisms are nothing less than symbolic systems, endowed with deep complexity and surprising dynamics. Their "virtual" personality is endlessly modeled and remodeled through the projections and demands of the faithful (both "theologians" and ordinary people, the collective level and the individual level), by expressing themselves in the dimension of myth and actualizing in worship. Far from being a static entity, each polytheistic god has the function of representing aspects of cosmic and natural reality, but also social and political; the gods are organized in a well-structured, coherent, organic system that is both a model and a reflection of human society. Therefore, it is not at all surprising to note to what extent the pantheon and the cult can constitute carrying elements of ideology and its changes in history of extraordinary interest – on condition of being suitably "decrypted" [...]. It is to the following themes that I wish to devote particular attention: comparative remarks on the pantheons of Ugarit and the Phoenician cities (Byblos, Sidon and Tyre were chosen for their exemplary nature); the exhibition of certain divine morphologies; the origin and dissemination of the "mythologeme" of the god who dies and resurrects [English translation from French by mDP]. |
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Religion
| Religion | p. 525 | If it is inappropriate to dwell here on questions of general methodology, it is nevertheless essential to recall how much, for a historian, the sic et simpliciter application of our concept of religion (inexorably linked to the Judeo-Christian heritage) to cultures that are older and/or different from our own – cultures that did not have or even do not have the subject term: religion – is proving problematic [English translation from French by mDP]. |
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Ugaritic pantheon(s)
| Pantheon(s) | pp. 527-528 | Ras Shamra/Ugarit As everyone knows, the data drawn from the documentation of Ras Shamra (especially textual: myths, rituals and other documents) indicate the existence of a highly developed polytheistic pantheon. The divinities that compose it form a numerous and structured whole, seen as an organic constellation based on a network of hierarchical relationships encompassing the genealogical, functional, alliance or antagonism levels. In this way, each figure is identified by his/her name and his/her epithet(s), as well as by his/her filiation, his/her locality (more or less mythical) of residence, his/her prerogatives and spheres of influence, all elements which establish his/her precise collocation (see the divine lists!) within divine society. [To my knowledge, the Ugarit pantheon is the closest polytheistic system to the Greek "model", which also gives us the basic terminology ("god", "polytheism"...)]. At a quick analysis of the structure of the pantheon, the most striking characteristic is the absence – quite normal in the case of polytheism – of a deity who is more powerful than the others. Ilu and Baalu Indeed, all in all, two gods stand at the top of the hierarchy, the ancient creator Ilu and the young and powerful Baalu. The primordial role of the first god is confirmed by the place he occupies in the divine lists and by his epithets: "King", "Saint", "Creator of creation", "Father (of mankind)", "Father of the years"(= Lord of time), "Bull", etc. As for the second god, also called Haddou, he is explicitly the polyad god ("Baalu of Ugarit") as well as, at the same time, the defender of the cosmic order established by Ilu. Neither one nor the other seems capable, on his own, of altering a balance guaranteed by the organic distribution of the different functions. It is a real diarchy of complementary powers, since Ilu – who holds a charismatic power based on authority and wisdom – is not able to regulate the cosmos nor to preserve it without force and boldness of Baalu. Indeed, it is to him that Ilu will entrust the ("active") kingship on earth, after a series of victorious struggles supported by the young god, who will also be the protagonist of a vicissitude of death and a return to life, a life (which we will talk about shortly), decisive for the fate of the cosmos and of mankind. Ilu, for his part, by virtue of his past as a creator and his nature as ancestor of all gods, including the most negative and threatening gods, carries on a super partes activity. Even if his heart seems to beat for Baalu, he remains formally neutral in the face of the latter's battles against his chaotic and terrifying opponents. Ilu cannot intervene directly in the successive events of creation: his function is to confer formal recognition on the one who will win the victory over the other candidates for divine kingship. Ilu is also a merciful father, charismatic but not overbearing; like Baalu, he often looks after and takes care of humans, and especially kings – as demonstrated by his interventions on behalf of Kirta and Danilu as they grapple with issues of offspring and health – helping to safeguard political and social order. Far from being a deus otiosus, Ilu thus occupies a primordial position in the religion of Ugarit, being among the most honored deities in the cult. Specific features of Baalu As for Baalu, endowed with a typical personality of "God of the storm", he is the lord of atmospheric phenomena, master of clouds and lightning, giver of vital rain, but also protector of men against the storms, indomitable elements of nature, like the raging sea (Yammu). His "first name" is Haddou, a theonym to be compared to the Eblaite Ada, to Addu from the Mesopotamian and Mari tradition, to the Aramaic Hadad, figures who display similar prerogatives. Identified with Kumarbi, Baalu also has affinities with Enlil and Teshub, as well as with Zeus. Belligerent and ready for battle, he resides on Mount Sapanu, where he has his royal palace, worthily conquered after having routed his opponents. Baalu therefore also takes on a primordial role in the pantheon of Ras Shamra as a polyad god, holder of full and executive kingship. He is presented as a sort of moderator of the natural cycle (fertility, fecundity), responsible for the right balance between life and death. His figure also reveals chthonic aspects, particularly related to his terrible experience of wrestling with Motu, involving death and a return to life. In short, we can deduce that the harmonic complementarity between the powers of Ilu and Baalu conceals complex historical and cultural phenomena, on which we can only speculate. Ugaritic pantheon That said, a plurality of deities around the two major gods is attested, each with its position and function within the pantheon. Without going into details, I will limit myself here to a quick focus on the most powerful female figures of the divine Ugaritic universe. Athiratu Athiratu is the wife of Ilu and the mother of divine generations. Her charisma is confirmed by the indispensable nature of her participation in the investiture of the champion of the gods, in addition to other prerogatives (such as, for example, a certain mastery of the sea) which are attributed to her (cf. her role in the story of Kirta, who forgets to fulfill her solemn vow in the "Tyro-Sidonian" (?) shrine of the goddess), and by the traces left in later tradition, biblical or otherwise (see e.g. Kuntilet Ajrud); however, her power is far removed from that of her husband and Baalu. Anatu Anatu, on the other hand – sometimes mentioned in close association with Ashtartu, so much that they appear as one and the same figure – is a goddess active and powerful, to whom is assigned a major role on the mythological level. Winged and armed, probable pothnia theron, she remains at Baalu's side in all battles and stands out in particular for having recovered the body of her brother devoured by Motu; with the help of Shapsu, she lays the foundations for the return to life of Baalu and consequently – mutatis mutandis – embodies the very female figure who, in the 1st millennium, will have a decisive function in the mythologeme of the "god who dies". Ugaritic influence on later Phoenician culture Many gods composing the pantheon of Ugarit continue to be the object of cult also in the Phoenician environment (Rashap, Horanu, Kotharu, ...), but I stop here, because my point is only of sketching the tendential structure of the pantheon of Ras Shamra [English translation from French by mDP]. |
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