Paul Achtemeier et al. Harper
Achtemeier 1996 Harper
The Harper Collins Bible Dictionary,
San Francisco: Harper San Francisco
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Preface of Achtemeier 1996 Harper
| Preface |
“The purpose of this dictionary is to make more widely available, and to an audience of nonspecialists, the results of the best of current biblical scholarship. In pursuing that goal, technical language has been avoided wherever possible, and where technical terms are used, they are carefully defined. When persons or places are mentioned, they are identified, and their dates are given with as much precision as is possible. Words in the biblical languages are defined and translated, with the result that information can be gleaned from the articles by persons of widely varying educational backgrounds. Those who know biblical history will learn here the latest results of the best scholarship; those who will here experience for the first time the thrill of the pursuit of historical knowledge will have opened up to them a whole new world of information. This dictionary stands as the latest in the long line of Harper's Bible dictionaries that have provided help in understanding the world of Scripture. This is, however, a totally new edition. All of the articles have been newly written, illustrations newly selected, and maps newly designed. It also represents a unique venture in the field of publishing since it is the result of a cooperative project between a major learned society, the Society of Biblical Literature (SBL), and a major publishing house, Harper & Row. In this joint effort, the Society of Biblical Literature has assumed responsibility for the content of the Dictionary, while Harper & Row has handled matters of format and editorial style. This has assured the widest circulation of what is surely the most authoritative volume in its field” (p. xix). |
| General topic(s) of the book |
“The HarperCollins Bible Dictionary, Revised Edition, is the most complete, up-to-date, and accessible guide for the study of the Bible available today. With more than 3,700 lively, informative, and easy-to-use entries, this essential reference book provides all the information you need to fully understand the Bible”. Relevant lemmas from this volume (those mentioned also in G. Buccellati's book) are here reported in the Excerpts section. |
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Extended summary of Achtemeier 1996 Harper
This dictionary displays many entries in alphabetical order dedicated to many aspects related to the Bible, including historical, philological, and social aspects, with some insights on Ancient Near Eastern culture. The entries are correlated with many colourful plates and geo-historical maps, helping the reader in better contextualizing the topics described in the textual sections.
The volume is indeed very useful as a companion to the reading of G. Buccellati’s book, since it provides the reader with basic notions on Hebrew and Christian cultures, along with parallels to religious phaenomena of the Ancient Near East and Egypt, stressing relationshionships and points of contact between the Bible and the cultures of its sourranding people.
Each entry will offer an excerpt of the lemma from the volume, displaying hyperlinks to the Biblical passages mentiones in the texts (redirecting to the Tanakh Project, for the OT, to Bible Hub, for the NT and Apocrypha, and to Sefaria, for Rabbinic literature).
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Excerpts from Achtemeier 1996 Harper
NOTE: in the excerpts, the headings are given by the author of the present page.
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Adversary
| Adversary | p. 15 | In the OT, anyone (or anything) standing in the way of the completion of God's will or opposing God's people either collectively or individually (e.g., 2 Sam. 19:22; 1 Kings 5:4; 11:25; Ezra 4:1). "Adversary" is the literal meaning of the Hebrew word satan, and the idea eventually developed that Satan was the adversary (see Job 1:6-2:7). In certain NT passages, the term is also used with this connotation (e.g., 1 Pet. 5:8; cf. 1 Tim. 5:14-15). See also Devil; Satan. |
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Amorites
| Amorites | pp. 30-31 | Definition Amorites (am'uh-rits), according to biblical tradition one of the primary peoples in the land of Canaan before the rise of Israel, the others being the Canaanites and the Hittites (see Ezek. 16:3). The term "Amorite" can refer to the basic population of the whole area (e.g., Gen. 15:16; Deut. 1:7). In particular, the Amorites are associated with Transjordan and the kingdoms of Sihon, centered at Heshbon, and Og, centered at Ashtaroth and Edrei. These "two kings of the Amorites" appear as opponents of Israel prior to the settlement of Palestine. Og, with his famous "iron bedstead," is cited as the last of the celebrated giants. From the perspective of the Israelites, the Amorites were idolators and doers of iniquity (e.g., Josh. 24:15; Judg. 6:10). Accordingly, God drove them out of the land. Sources The Semitic-speaking Amorites appear in cuneiform (and Egyptian) sources as an early population group, associated especially with the west (including areas connected with the patriarchs of Israel, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), and as politically dominant in Mesopotamia in the early second millennium B.C. There was also a territory of Amurru in western Syria. At times, such as in the two centuries prior to the Exodus (fifteenth-fourteenth centuries B.C.), there was a specific kingdom of Amurru; in earlier times the area had several kings. The antiquity of Amorites in the land of Canaan is unclear. Linguistic evidence indicates their presence as a settled population by ca. 1900 B.C., to judge from personal names,Note 1 but that evidence is not decisive. The archaeological evidence is also unclear. Origins The coming of the Amorites has been correlated by some scholars with the archaeological discontinuity at the end of Early Bronze Age III, ca. 2350 B.C. (and a transition to seminomadic pastoralism), or with the emergence of Middle Bronze I, ca. 2000 B.C. (and a transition to a more urbanized society). The problem is not settled. The patterns of population shift in the larger area are complex and precise correlations of literary and archaeological evidence are difficult. |
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Angel
| Angel | pp. 33-34 | Definition Angel (Gk. angelos, "messenger"), a spiritual being, subordinate to God, who serves at God's command and pleasure to deliver his messages, help his people, and punish his enemies. In the OT, angels appear in the stories of the patriarchs (e.g., Gen. 16:7-14; 19:1-22; 22:11, 15-18; 28:12; 31:11-13; 32:1-2) and elsewhere (e.g., Exod. 3:2; 23:20-23; 33:2; Judg. 13:3-5; 1 Kings 19:5-7; 2 Kings 19:35; Isa. 37:36; Pss. 34:7; 35:5-6; 91:11). There is some ambiguity, however, about what form these messengers take, exactly what type of beings they are, and just what their relation to God is, especially in the earlier materials. Old Testament Since God frequently confronts humans directly in the OT texts, the appearance of angels is somewhat sporadic. As religious thinking developed, and as God came to be understood as increasingly transcendent, the perceptions about angels also began to change. Ideas developed about good and bad angels, a hierarchy of angels before God, and specific duties assigned to each angel or group of angels. Many of these ideas can be found in the apocryphal and pseudepigraphical writings (e.g., Tobit, 2 Esdras, 1 Enoch, and The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs). New Testament By the NT period, angels were understood as suprahuman or spiritual beings who were allied with God in opposition to Satan and his "angels," the demons. Angels had many functions. They praised God (Ps. 103:20), served as his messengers to the world (Luke 1:11-20, 26-38; 2:9-14), watched over God's people (Ps. 91:11-12), and were sometimes instruments of God's judgment (Matt. 13:49-50). |
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Anthropomorphism
| Anthropomorphism | p. 36 | Definition Anthropomorphism (an'thruh-puh-mor'fizuhm), the description of God in terms that are literally appropriate for human beings. Examples and interpretation(s) References to God's hands or ears, or to his evening walk in a garden (Gen. 3:8), or to his being moved by passion, irritation, or regret are typical examples. Traditional religion has tended to regard most such expressions as figurative, inexact, or improper, because they provide in inadequate "human" form expressions of a divine reality that is itself far removed from these inadequacies. Within the Bible anthropomorphic expressions appear to be more concentrated in earlier sources than in later, in the OT rather than in the NT, and in narrative or prophetic rather than in priestly or wisdom materials. When God appears to Abraham, he seems to be one of three "men" (Gen. 18-19). He speaks with people in articulate human speech. He smells sacrifice. He regrets what he has done. On the other hand, many passages emphasize the great difference between God and humans, his consistency and lack of change (1 Sam. 15:29, interestingly a passage where God has in fact just changed his mind, rejecting Saul whom he himself had chosen). Important elements of biblical thought seek to deal with these problems. The "image of God" in humans may establish a proper relation between God and humans while avoiding the suggestion that God is a larger man. Speech through intermediaries like prophets reduces the difficulties presented by direct speech by God. In the NT the centrality of Jesus leaves the "Father" more transcendent and yet makes God "appear" in human form. Later exegesis relates these ideas to the Greco-Roman philosophical tradition, which had also sought to reconcile anthropomorphic depictions with the universal and eternally consistent being of deity. |
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Asherah
| Asherah | pp. 82-83 | Definition Asherah (uh-shihr'uh), a Canaanite goddess, the wife of El according to Ugaritic tradition, but the consort of Baal in Palestine. In the Ugaritic literature she is called "Lady Asherah of the Sea," a title that may signify "she who treads on the sea." Apart from her name, she has other connections with the sea. Her servant is called "fisherman of Lady Asherah of the Sea." A drinking cup from Ras-Shamra seems to portray her underwater. Cult The cult of Asherah was ancient. Tyre seems to have been a major center for her veneration. Her cult was widely diffused, but combinations with the figures Anat and Astarte and other factors have made its identification problematic. She was called, in addition to Asherah, Elat ("Goddess") and Qudshu ("Holy"). Asherah probably stands behind the Punic goddess Tanit ("She of the Serpent"?). Asherah plays an important role in the mythological texts from Ras-Shamra in modern northern Syria. The gods are regarded as the children of Asherah and El. As the wife of El, Asherah is called on to intercede with her husband on behalf of the project of building a palace for Baal. Her relationship with Baal is perplexing. Baal's assault on the offspring of Asherah is once narrated, yet Asherah advocates for Baal the role of king and judge among the gods. A Canaanite myth that survives only in a Hittite version ("El, Ashertu, and the Storm God") reveals that Asherah once sought the storm god (Baal) as a lover, a quest achieved with El's approval but to the eventual humiliation of Asherah. In the Ugaritic legend of Kirta (Keret), Asherah receives a vow from Kirta, but when he fails to fulfill his vow, she brings sickness upon him. Asherah is a mother figure, and it is announced that the offspring of Kirta will take nourishment at her breasts. In the Bible In the Bible, the noun "Asherah" is used with more than one meaning. Asherah remains a Canaanite goddess whose veneration in Israel is blamed on Jezebel (see 1 Kings 18:19). Jezebel's Asherah had four hundred prophets. Asherah was also worshiped in the south, and the Deuteronomistic historian praises Asa for destroying a detestable image made for Asherah (1 Kings 15:13). Manasseh, by contrast, is blamed for erecting a statue of Asherah (2 Kings 21:7). Vessels sacred to Asherah were also deposited in the Jerusalem Temple (2 Kings 23:4). The name of Asherah is associated with that of Baal, and these were evidently a divine couple; but Baal is also linked to Astarte. Hebrew jar inscriptions from Kuntillet 'Ajrud raise the problem of Yahweh's relationship with Asherah. These inscriptions permit a reading that associates Yahweh of Samaria with his Asherah. If correct, these readings would demonstrate that in popular religion Yahweh was associated with a consort, Asherah, an eventuality that can cause no surprise in light of all we know about other religions of this period and area. Reference to places or cultic objects But the noun "Asherah" may also signify "sanctuary" or refer to a cult object, and so the interpretation of the Kuntillet 'Ajrud inscriptions can be disputed. Asherah can also refer to a cult object or objects. A high place might have an asherah (1 Kings 14:23; 2 Kings 18:4), but an asherah could equally be found outside a high place. The Baal temple at Samaria had an asherah (1 Kings 16:33), and they were, in general, common in places of worship in ancient Israel. The asherah is thought to have represented the goddess; it may have been carved from wood (Judg. 6:25) or it may have been a living tree planted to serve as an asherah (Deut. 16:21). Deuteronomy commands the destruction of the asherah by burning (Deut. 12:3). It can be guessed that an asherah was formed as a pole, but descriptions of the object are wanting. The cult of the goddess Asherah and the use of the cultic object called asherah are persistently opposed in Israel's literature (Mic. 5:12-13; Deut. 16:21). Israel's interpretation Israel's faith did not admit the worship of gods other than Yahweh. However, since the worship of Yahweh owed much to the cults of El and Baal, the danger constantly existed that the exaltation of a divine couple modeled on the association of El and Asherah or Baal and Asherah would take root in Israel. The Canaanite divine couples lived with a sexual endowment. The Yahweh of the Bible, however, was not to be thought of as a sexual being. |
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Atonement
| Atonement | p. 88 | Definition Atonement, the means by which the guiltpunishment chain produced by violation of God's will is broken, as well as the resulting state of reconciliation ("at-onement") with God. For most ancients, violation of the world order led to punishment by divine powers; only atonement could prevent or end such punishment. Interpretations The character of atonement varied greatly, however, depending on concepts of the deity, human existence, and the order of violation. The English word "atonement" does not occur in the RSV (cf. Rom. 5:11: "atonement" in the KJV, "reconciliation" in the RSV). Old Testament The Hebrew word with which the concept of atonement is associated in the OT can be translated variously as "purge," "cleanse," "expiate," "purify," "wipe on or off," "cover," etc. The Septuagint (LXX) Greek equivalent was of influence for the language and thought of the NT. The OT viewed a number of offerings and sacrifices as atoning. The best known were the elaborate sacrificial/priestly rites of atonement developed mainly in the postexilic period. Basic to their development was the OT view of God: God was the faithful, holy covenant partner to his people; he provided the means of atonement when the sanctuary or the land became defiled, or when the people were unfaithful. God did not need appeasement; rather, atonement removed the sinful barrier to the covenantal relationship. The rites of atonement were carried out by the high priest through prescribed sacrifices in the Temple. Covenant renewal and restoration were connected to the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16). Atonement was anything but routine and automatic (Pss. 40; 51:15-17). Early Judaism and New Testament For early Judaism, the atonement base was broadened to include the sacrifice of martyrs whose achievements were calculated and deemed meritorious for others (e.g., 4 Mace. 6:28-29; 17:20-24). In the NT, atonement is linked conclusively to the ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus. According to early traditions in the first three ("synoptic") gospels, Jesus may have understood his destiny in atoning terms (Mark 10:45b; 14:24; cf. Isa. 53; Exod. 32:30-32). Early Christian thought developed this and other OT backgrounds. For Paul, for example, the location and source of God's mercy, namely Jesus Christ, was central (KJV: "mercy seat," RSV: "expiation"; Rom. 3:25). For Hebrews, the central image was that of the high priest (Heb. 2:17; 4:14-5:10; 10:19-21; cf. Lev. 16; Ps. 110:1-4). Early appropriation of an intercessory "on-our-behalf" traditional formula enhanced this development of seeing in Jesus the locus of atonement (1 Cor. 15:3). Atonement as "redemption" (1 Cor. 6:20; 7:23; Gal. 3:13; 4:5) may have other backgrounds beside those of the OT (Exod. 4:22-23; 21:30; 30:16; Num. 35:31-33). Unlike other NT writings, Luke-Acts makes little use of atonement concepts. |
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Atonement, Day of
| Atonement, Day of | pp. 88-89 | Definition Atonement, Day of (Heb. Yom Kippur), a festival observed in Israel ten days after the fall new year (Lev. 16:29; 23:27) to purify the sanctuary and altar and atone for the sins and impurities of the high priest and Israel for the past year (Lev. 16:1-34; 23:26-32; Num. 29:7-11) [cf. also Balentine 2020 Ritual] Cultic activities The high priest sacrificed a bull for himself and a goat for Israel and used the blood to remove the impurities of the sanctuary, Holy of Holies, and altar caused by ritual and moral sins. On this day, only the high priest entered the innermost room of the tent and later the Temple, the Holy of Holies, to sprinkle blood from the bull and goat on the top and front of the "cover" (or mercy seat) and to offer incense. In a related ritual, the priest symbolically placed the sins of the people upon another goat (the so-called scapegoat) that was then driven into the wilderness, taking the sins and impurities away. Israel observed this festival as a day of fast on which no work was done. Hebrews 8-9 draws heavily on the ritual and symbolism of the Day of Atonement to explain Christ's sacrifice. |
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Commandment
| Commandment | p. 191 | Definition and attestations Commandment (Heb. mitzvah), a verbal or written requirement or order. This important term appears over a hundred and eighty times in the OT. Over ninety percent of these refer to God's requirements of Israel as stipulated in the Pentateuch. The religious usage of "commandment" may be tied to the secular ones of king-subject (e.g., 2 Kings 18:36) and parentchild (e.g., Jer. 35:14; Prov. 6:20). The term appears often in conjunction with torah and laws (e.g., Gen. 26:5; Exod. 24:12; Deut. 6:1). The people are enjoined to "keep" (lit., "guard") the commandments (e.g., Lev. 26:3). Far from being burdensome, the commandments are the psalmist's "delight" (Ps. 119:47, 143) and "love" (v. 127). Indeed, in the Ten Commandments, God calls those who observe his commandments "those who love me" (Exod. 20:6; Deut. 5:10). Jesus' interpretation For Jesus, the two greatest commandments are love of God and neighbor (Matt. 22:35-40; Mark 12:28-34; Luke 10:25-28, based upon Deut. 6:5 and Lev. 19:18) — a perspective rooted in Jewish tradition contemporary with Jesus. |
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Covenant
| Covenant | p. 208 | Definition and attestations Covenant (Heb. berith), a formal agreement or treaty between two parties with each assuming some obligation. In the Hebrew Bible, a covenant might be a pact of mutuality concerning individuals, such as Laban and Jacob (Gen. 31:44-54) or David and Jonathan (1 Sam. 18:3; 23:18); states or other political units, such as Abraham and the Amorites (Gen. 14:13), Abraham and Abimelech, king of Gerar (Gen. 21:22-32), Abner and David (2 Sam. 3:12-13, 21), David and the people (2 Sam. 5:3), Solomon and Hiram (1 Kings 5:26), and Asa and Ben-hadad (1 Kings 15:18-19); husband and wife (cf. Mal. 2:14; Ezek. 16:8). Extended meaning(s) A covenant also might be imposed by a greater power upon a lesser one. The greater power demands loyalty and obligates itself to the protection of the lesser one, such as Israel and the Gibeonites (Josh. 9) and the request by Jabesh - gilead of the king of Ammon (1 Sam. 11:1-2). The vast majority of the references to covenant in the Bible are to such a treaty — the covenant that God makes with Israel at Sinai. This covenant must be understood on the basis of political and judicial categories. |
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Creation
| Creation | pp. 209-210 | Definition Creation, the act of God by which the universe came into being. The Bible's chief account of creation is that in Gen. 1:1-2:3 (or 2:4a). Sources: between tradition, inspiration and interpretation This text is generally attributed to a sixth-century B.C. Priestly author (P), who radically changed (demythologized) the origin of the cosmos depicted in the poetic accounts current in the ancient Near East (esp. the Ugaritic Baal epic and Babylonian Enuma Elish). Instead of divine combat and struggle with a willful primordial matter — motifs otherwise abundant in biblical poetry — we find a sole, sovereign master of the universe directing the work of creation by verbal command and a freely determined plan. God is here shown making the world in six days and resting on the seventh (cf. Exod. 20:11). On the first day God created light and darkness, night and day; on the second, the firmament separating earthly and heavenly waters; on the third, dry land and vegetation; on the fourth, the heavenly luminaries of the sun ("greater luminary") for ruling the day and the moon (chief "lesser luminary") for ruling the night; on the fifth, sea creatures and birds; and on the sixth, land creatures and humans. The first three days present frameworks of the cosmos, the last three their respective inhabitants. God names the works of the first three days, the humans presumably (cf. 2:19—20) the rest. The creation story's verbal structure is artful. The verb "created" (Heb. bara') appears in poetic parallel to the verb "made" (Heb. 'asah) in 2:4 (the verse's two halves are usually ascribed to separate authors), and the two alternate throughout 1:1-2:3: "created" generally on oddnumbered days (1:1, 21), "made" generally on even-numbered (1:7, 16, 25); both are together in the creation of man and woman (1:26-27) and sanctification of the Sabbath (2:3). Ways of creation Creation by verbal command occurs throughout the six days but seems to alternate with more physical and artisanlike depictions reflecting older poetic conceptions about divine activities. The first half of the Garden story (Gen. 2) presents another, probably older, view of creation. The order of creation is here reversed: man appears appears first (2:7), plants and animals later (19-20). Woman is created separately (2:22), instead of simultaneously with the male as in 1:26-27. Whereas 1:26-28 places humans as rulers over earthly creation (cf. Ps. 8:5-9), 2:15-17 makes man a cloistered servant of divinity, assigned menial labors and token responsibilities — though the underlying story is probably one of royal investiture. Canaanite and Babylonian creation accounts, often associated with New Year festivals, depicted a divine struggle with primordial foes, culminating in the protagonist's victory, triumphal procession, enthronement, promulgation of law, and dedication of a sanctuary. Often, as in Marduk's battle (Enuma Elish 4. 28ff.) with Tiamat (cf. Heb. Tehom, "the Deep," Gen. 1:2), the protagonist struggles to contain and delimit primordial waters. Divine struggle with waters, victory over chaos, and cosmogonie promulgation of law/wisdom are found throughout biblical poetry (cf. Exod. 15; Isa. 40-42; 45; Hab. 3:8; Pss. 18; 19; 24; 29; 33; 68; 93; 95; 104; Prov. 8:22-33; Job 38-41), and are closely associated with God's saving actions on behalf of Israel and its leaders. Creation accounts also occur in apocryphal sources (2 Esd. 6; Ecclus. 43). Christian interpretation Christian authors introduced the idea of Christ as mediator and agent of creation (e.g., Col. 1:15-16). In doing this they weredrawing on earlier traditions that said that divine Wisdom was the agent of creation, a tradition that appears both in the OT (e.g., Prov. 8:25-27) and in apocryphal writings (e.g., Wisd. of Sol. 7:24-25; Ecclus. 24:3, 9). Jewish and Christian apocalyptic (esp. 1 Enoch; Revelation) also project creation motifs onto end time. |
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Cults
| Cults | p. 213 | Cults, illicit non-Israelite forms of worship. Throughout the history of ancient Israel, there were those who participated in and fostered the growth of cults (cf. 2 Kings 21). These cults arose from Canaanite influence in the land of Israel itself and from the influence of neighboring countries. One of the main tasks of the prophets was to return the people to the proper worship of God and to eliminate these competing cults (1 Kings 18:20-40). |
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Death
| Death | p. 232 | Definition and conception in the Bible Death, the end of physical and/or spiritual life. Ancient Israel's official response to mortality was, first, to accept it as God's original design and, second, to forbid worship that was concerned with the dead (Lev. 19:28; 20:1-11). Neighboring cultures Neighboring cultures believed that the dead lived on in the underworld in a communicative state (Deut. 18:9-14), but Israel's theologians taught that they were, for practical purposes, nonexistent (Eccles. 9:5-6). Nonetheless, foreign ideas and practices continued (1 Sam. 28; Isa. 8:19). Death ≠ mortality Mortality must be distinguished from other concepts of death. Biologically, death is the end of every creature's existence; God alone is immortal (Ps. 90:1-6). Metaphorically, "death" is a value judgment upon those things that detract from life as the Creator intended it (1 Sam. 2:6-7). Mythologically, death is a power that acts independently (Job 18:13; Jer. 9:21). The last usage is a rare vestige of polytheism, since orthodox religion denied the existence of more than one divine force. Death as a natural process = from polytheism to monotheism Thus death was reduced to a natural process and no Devil was acknowledged to exist. The second usage (metaphorical) contrasts "life" with psychological, sociological, and spiritual "death," which holds the world in its grip. "Life" was mediated through Israel's sociology, ethics, and worship. The first usage (biological) consists of narrative observations that so-and-so died. This reality did not lead to the belief that life was therefore meaningless. Nonetheless, a death that was premature (Isa. 38:1-12), or violent (1 Sam. 15:32), or that left no heir (2 Sam. 18:18) produced anxiety. |
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Dreams
| Dreams | pp. 246-247 | Definition and Biblical examples Dreams, visions widely attested in the early books of the Bible (e.g., Jacob's dream, Gen. 28:12; Joseph's dreams, Gen. 37), yet often viewed with distrust in the later tradition, as in Jer. 23:28: "Let the prophet who has a dream tell the dream, but let him who has my word speak my word faithfully" (see also Deut. 13:2-6; Jer. 27:9-10; 29:8-9; Sir. 34:1-8). Dreams are rehabilitated as a mode of revelation in the apocalyptic literature. Daniel interprets the dreams of the gentile king and receives his own revelations in dream-visions (also cf. Zech. 1:8 with the prophecy of Joel 2:28). New Testament In the NT dreams figure most prominently in the nativity story of Matthew. |
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Eschatology
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Evil
| Evil | p. 315 | Definition Evil, a term with several nuances of meaning in the biblical writings. At base, the primary understanding evolves from a religious perspective, since all forms of evil are regarded as ultimately occasioned by the disobedience and rebellion of the human race with regard to God and God's will. Evil occurs where and when God's will is hindered by human sin. Examples Bad situations or natural calamities were sometimes referred to as "evil," and such occurrences were frequently interpreted as having been sent by God as a punishment for sin (e.g., Deut. 31:17; Amos 3:6; Jer. 26:19). Moreover, if something did not function properly or could not be understood, this too was seen to be "evil" (e.g., Eccles. 6:1-2). Interpretation and concretization Quite early in the development of Israel's religious understanding, evil came to be concretized in specific persons or events. Later, it came to be understood as a separate and pervasive power in the created order. This system of evil had a leader (Satan, the devil) who exercised control over numerous underlings (demons). However it was seen to be manifested in human experience, evil was interpreted as rebellion against God or the thwarting of God's will through actions (by humans or others) that were at odds with God's plans and purposes for the world. Various biblical passages locate evil in different places: the human will (e.g., 1 Sam. 24:13; Mark 7:20-23; cf. also Gen. 6:5), the desire for worldly wealth (e.g., 1 Tim. 6:10), or demonic powers that take control of human lives (cf. the stories of demon possession in the synoptic Gospels). Wherever evil originated, however, it was understood to be effective only as it took human form. It was clear from observation, if nothing else, that human beings are inclined toward, open to, and perpetrators of evil and that evil always has tragic consequences for the human race. |
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Faith
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Flood
| Flood | pp. 341-342 | Definition and Old Testament Flood, the catastrophic excess of water described in Genesis 6-8. The biblical story of the Flood relates how God destroyed the existing world but saved Noah and his family and representatives of each animal species in an ark. After the waters subsided and the arkrested on Mount Ararat (8:4), Noah sent out a raven and then a dove (which brought back an olive branch); seven days later he sent out another dove, which did not return (8:6-12). Noah disembarked, offered sacrifices, and formally rebegan the world by a contract (covenant) in which Noah and his sons received instructions and God promised not to bring a flood again (8:13-22; 9:8-17), a promise signaled by the appearance of the rainbow. Interpretations The OT word for the cosmic flood is mabbul, which also refers to the heavenly ocean (cf. e.g., Ps. 29:10). The Flood was an undoing of creation: the cosmic waters overwhelmed the earth, coming through the windows of the sky and the fountains of the great deep beneath the earth (7:11; cf. 8:2). Thus, return to the primeval watery condition set the stage for a new beginning for the world (cf. Gen. 1:2, 9). |
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Generation
| Generation | p. 366 | Definitions Generation (Heb. dor), the period of time between the birth of parents and the birth of their children; all of the people alive during that time. Old Testament The OT uses "generation" only loosely as a measure of time, and it is therefore difficult to use the term in exact chronological calculations. Although a generation sometimes covers up to a hundred years (Gen. 15:13, 16; Exod. 12:40), most biblical writers seem to consider thirty to forty years to be a normal generation (Deut. 2:14; Job 42:16; Ps. 95:10). Usually "generation" simply refers to all of the people at a given time (Gen. 6:9; Pss. 14:5; 24:6; 49:19; 24:6; 112:2; Jer. 2:3). English translations Some English translations use "generations" to translate the Hebrew word toledot, a term that refers to a sequence of people or events and that might better be translated "genealogy" or "story." Structural use in the composition of the two Testaments In Genesis In Genesis the formula "these are the generations of X" is used to give structure to the book. Sometimes the formula introduces genealogies that summarize a history of events, trace the transmission of something from one generation to another, or relate characters to each other (Gen. 5:1; 10:1; 11:10; 25:12; 36:1). Elsewhere the formula introduces a new block of narrative (Gen. 2:4; 6:9; 11:27; 25:19; 37:2). Outside of Genesis Outside of Genesis, the word "generations" usually introduces or concludes a genealogy (e.g., Exod. 6:16, 19; 28:10; Num. 3:1; 1 Chron. 5:7; Matt. 1:17). |
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Genesis
| Genesis | p. 367 | Theology: Genesis is first and foremost an account of God's ardent initiative to create and bless the world. Divine discourse commences as well as directs the course of history. God's character as depicted in Genesis is full and complex: God creates, deliberates, and recreates (Gen. 1:26; 11:6-7; 18:17). Resolute in intent, God is also stricken with grief (Gen. 6:6). Utterly transcendent, God enters into the fray of earthly existence, blessing and guiding human beings through the travails of history. God both acts and reacts to the choices human beings make (e.g., Gen. 11:1-9). The story of the Flood marks a watershed in this sweeping narrative, for here God must begin anew the whole creative enterprise. Yet God never relents in blessing and renewing life. |
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Gestures
| Gestures | p. 372 | Definition Gestures, movements of the hands and other parts of the body by which humans and other primates consciously or unconsciously express attitudes or feelings. In the Bible The Bible, like other literatures from the earliest antiquity to the present day, employs words and phrases to enable readers to visualize gestures, postures, and facial expressions. In many cases the words and phrases in the Bible that refer to gestures can be correlated with specific gestures illustrated in sculptures, seals, reliefs, and tomb paintings from the ancient Near East. The analysis of gestures, postures, and facial expressions and the systematic investigation of their role in the conscious or unconscious expression of emotions and ideas are today referred to under the rubrics of body language, kinesics, nonverbal communication, and semiotics. Research in these fields has demonstrated, among other things, that gesticulation is universal among humans; that no gesture has precisely the same meaning in every culture; and that the pattern of gesticulation within a given culture operates in consonance with the spoken language to effect a two-channel communication. These findings have put to rest the assumption, widely held until recently, that the Bible frequently refers to gestures, postures, and facial expressions because the Bible is a product of the Middle East, whose inhabitants, it was alleged, being less civilized than the peoples of northern Europe, exert less control over the spontaneous physical expression of their emotions. Prayer gestures Prayer Gestures: The prayer gesture most frequently mentioned in the OT is "spreading the palms" (Exod. 9:29, 33; 1 Kings 8:22, 38, 54; 2 Chron. 6:12, 13, 29; Ezra 9:5; Job 11:13; Ps. 44:21; Isa. 1:15; Jer. 4:31). Apparently this gesture was employed with prayers of petition to suggest that God fill the hands of the petitioner with the requested benefit. This gesture is probably to be distinguished from "lifting up the hands" toward the holy place or sanctuary (Pss. 28:2; 134:2)Note 2. While in both its attestations the latter gesture was directed toward an earthly sanctuary, Akkadian, Ugaritic, Greek, and Roman parallels suggest that it originated as a salute to God in his heavenly temple. |
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God
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Guilt
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Heave offering
| Heave offering | p. 408 | Heave offering (Heb. teruma), an incorrect translation in the KJV whose proper meaning is "dedication" or "dedicated gift." It is used of the animal thigh of the well-being offering (Lev. 7:32-34), the tithe (Num. 18:24-29), sanctuary building materials (Exod. 25:2), land (Ezek. 48:8-21) and several other sacred donations. Dedication indicates the transference of an object from the owner to God. Unlike the so-called wave offering (more accurately "elevation offering"), dedication is not a ritual act done at the sanctuary but is a simple dedication effected outside its precincts. In Second Temple times the dedication offering became a definite ritual act, hence the translation "heave offering." |
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Holiness
| Holiness | p. 431 | Definition Holiness, a term in Hebrew probably meaning separate from the ordinary or profane. Also in Hebrew and in Greek "holy" implies connection with God or the divine. Thus, God is holy and people, things, and actions may be holy by association with God. Holiness may also include the ideas of consecration to God and purity from what is evil or improper. Old Testament In the OT: In the OT God is the Holy One par excellence. Israel's earliest hymn praises God as "majestic in holiness" (Exod. 15:11). Both Psalms and Isaiah frequently refer to God as the Holy One (Isa. 1:4; 5:19; Ps. 99) and in Isaiah's vision of the heavenly court the angels sing praise to God as "Holy, holy, holy" (Isa. 6:3). Places where God appeared and was customarily worshiped were also holy. At the burning bush (Exod. 3:5) Moses is instructed to remove his shoes because he stands on holy ground. After Jacob receives a vision at Bethel, he consecrates it as a holy place (Gen. 28:11-22). Other ancient Israelite shrines were consecrated by similar contact with God. The Temple in Jerusalem was the most holy place in Israel because God's presence dwelled there (1 Kings 8:10-11). The equipment used in the Temple, including the jars, altars, candleholders, musical instruments, and vestments, were especially set aside and thus holy. The sacrificial animals and other food had to meet stringent requirements and once designated holy could not be returned to secular use. They were either burned on the altar or consumed by the priests in the Temple. The priests and other personnel of the Temple were holy and only they could enter certain parts of the Temple and perform the sacrifices and other ritual acts. Holiness extended to the rituals and the words used at the Temple, to the name of God (Lev. 20:3), to the Sabbath (Gen. 2:3), and to the other feasts. Holiness and Israel In addition to God and to Israel's worship practices, Israel itself is a holy nation (Exod. 19:4; Deut. 7:6). Israel's holiness depends on its adherence to God's commandments and avoidance of sin. The Holiness Code, a comprehensive series of ethical and ritual laws in Lev. 18-26, demands observance because of holiness: "You shall be holy; for I the Lord your God am holy" (Lev. 19:2). Later interpretations The Pharisees and the latter rabbis extended the ritual holiness of the Temple and its food to the ordinary people who were urged to observe ritual purity in eating, sex, and celebration of festivals. The text of the Bible, which became a central symbol for a life consecrated to God and obedience to God's commandments, became holy (cf. Rom. 7:12), as did "every action done for the sake of Heaven." |
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Hymn
| Hymn | p. 445 | Hymn, broadly speaking, any poetical composition in honor of God or suitable for use in a liturgical setting, i.e., in worship. Such poetical pieces could be sung or chanted or recited antiphonally as in a responsive reading. With this understanding, many of the Psalms in the OT fall into the category of "hymn," but there are passages incorporated into other OT writings that can also be understood as hymns. There are the Song of Moses (Exod. 15:1-18), the Song of Miriam (Exod. 15:21), and the Song of Hannah (1 Sam. 2:1-10), to cite only three. The Psalms, as well as other hymns not included in the canon (such as psalms discovered at Qumran), were used in the worship of the postexilic Jewish synagogues. |
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Hydol
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Image of God
| Image of God | pp. 450-451 | Definition Image of God, a key term for understanding the divine-human relationship in biblical thought. Discussion The exact meaning of the phrase in Gen. 1:26-27 and 9:6 is problematic, and numerous suggestions have been proposed. To speak of human beings ("Adam") as created in the image of God apparently refers primarily to the bodily form (the Hebrew term for "image" usually denotes a concrete likeness) but also to the spiritual attributes the physical body symbolizes. The plural pronouns of Gen. 1:27-28 indicate that male and female share equally in the image of God and connect this idea to the twofold commandment ("Be fruitful and multiply ... and have dominion over ..."), so that both in nature and in function human beings are understood to reflect their Creator. New Testament In the NT, vestiges of the OT meaning survive (1 Cor. 11:7-12; James 3:9), but the emphasis shifts and it becomes Christ who embodies the image of God (2 Cor. 4:4; Phil. 2:6; Col. 1:15). This reflects the Christian view (most evident in John 14 and 15) in which Christ becomes the mediator between God and human beings. |
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Inspiration
| Inspiration | p. 454 | Inspiration, the filling with or domination by spirit. This concept first appears in biblical materials as a way of describing and understanding certain types of oral discourse. In ancient Israel, prophecy was understood as being uttered under the influence of God's Spirit (e.g., Num. 24:2) or spirits (1 Kings 22:19-23). Sometimes this was evident in peculiar behavior by the prophets (e.g., 1 Sam. 10:6); at other times, it appears simply as a claim to divine authorization (e.g., Isa. 61:1). |
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Israel
| Israel | p. 466 | Israel (iz'ray-uhl), the collective name of the twelve tribes descended from Jacob, whose name was also "Israel" (Gen. 32:28; 35:10). In the Bible the people are called "the children of Israel" (usually rendered "the people of Israel" by the RSV) or simply "Israel." As a political designation "Israel" refers either to the nation as a whole or, during the period of the Divided Monarchy (924-721 B.C.), to the Northern Kingdom in particular, as distinct from Judah, the Southern Kingdom. |
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Justice
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Kerygma
| Kerygma | p. 564 | Kerygma (ki-rig'muh), the transliteration of a Greek noun usually translated "preaching" but indicating the content of the preaching more than the act. In the NT, that content is the "gospel," i.e., the "good news" of God's redemptive activity in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus (Matt. 12:41; Luke 11:32; Rom. 16:25; 1 Cor. 1:21; 15:14; Titus 1:3). |
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Knowledge
| Knowledge | p. 575 | Knowledge, a term in the OT that includes experience, emotion, and personal relationship along with intellectual understanding. In Greek "knowledge" refers primarily to intelligent apprehension, but the NT use of the word usually includes OT connotations. Individual books of the Bible develop particular meanings for "knowledge." Old Testament In the OT God is known because of selfrevelation and humans know by acknowledging and accepting God (Deut. 11:2-7; Isa. 11:2; 41:20; Jer. 2:8; 9:6). The nations do not know God (Jer. 10:25), but God's saving of Israel makes them know God's power (Isa. 37:20). Conversely, God knows humans and gives them support. God knew Jeremiah before he was born (Jer. 1:5) and appointed him a prophet. Human knowledge implies involvement and commitment. In the garden Adam and Eve ate of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil and gained personal knowledge of good and evil that changed their relationship with God (Gen. 3). The prophets describe sinners as those who know not the way of peace (Isa. 59:8). Knowing also implies experience; sexual relations are spoken of as "knowing" (Gen. 4:1; Luke 1:34). In rabbinic writings that stress the study of Torah, the knowledge of God's word that issues from study results in acceptance of God with consequent obedience to his commandments. |
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Lamentations
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Law
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Magic and Divination
| Magic and divination | pp. 641-642 | Definitions Magic and divination, means by which humans attempt to secure for themselves some action or information from superhuman powers. Magicis an attempt by human beings to compel a divinity, by the use of physical means, to do what they wish that divinity to do. Divination is an attempt to secure information, also by the use of physical means, about matters and events that are currently hidden or that lie in the future. The word "magus," from which the word "magic" is derived, came originally from Persia, where it designated a priestly class. From there, it spread to all nations in the Mediterranean world. Magical practices are as old as the written records of humanity, and, in the world of the Bible, they can be found in ancient Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Greek documents. Although a systematic presentation of the theory of magic did not appear in the Greco-Roman literature until the third and fourth centuries of the Christian era, the general principles upon which the practice of magic was based were more or less accepted by all. These principles may be summarized briefly as follows: A host of intermediary beings called demons exist between gods and humans. Depending on their proximity to the gods, demons possess divine power in diminishing measures. Those closest to the gods have bodies of air; those closest to humans, bodies of steam or water. Because of this descending order, the unity of the cosmos can be preserved. Otherwise, human and divine would be irreparably separated and no communication between the two would be possible. Everything is connected through the demons who mediate between the divine and the material. Magic rests upon the belief that by getting hold of demons in physical objects, the divinity can be influenced. The magician's art is to find out which material (metal, herb, animal, etc.) contains which divinity and to what degree. By using the element or combinations of elements containing a particular divinity in its purest form, a sympathetic relationship with the divinity will be established. If, however, elements offensive to a divinity are used, the result will be antipathetic. Thus magic can achieve either blessing or curse. The magician knows the secret and knows how to use it in the correct way with the best results. Magic and the Bible Magic and the Biblical World: Because of the pervasive presence in the biblical world of magical beliefs and practices, one should not be surprised that such practices seeped into the lives of the Israelites and the early Christians. Even where magic was not intended, the need to speak about divine-human contact inevitably made use of the same vocabulary and concepts used in magic. The most awesome power seemed to rest in the name of a divinity, because the name and its bearer were in the closest relationship to each other. The name of God, YHWH, was, therefore, never pronounced (Exod. 3:13-15). Magic and Jesus Jesus "has a name inscribed which no one knows but himself" (Rev. 19:12). The divine name could invoke blessing and drive away evil, so baptism in the early church was administered "in the name" of God and Jesus (Matt. 28:19), and healings were accomplished in Jesus' name (Acts 3:6). |
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Methods of Divination
| Methods of divination | pp. 642-643 | Definition Methods of Divination: With divination, in contrast to magic, one does not seek to alter the course of events, only to learn about them. Divination in the ancient world The ancient world developed many devices by which the veil of secrecy covering future events could be lifted. Oracles, such as the Pythia in Delphi, the oak trees of Dodona, or the Memnon of Thebes, were media chosen by the gods through which direct messages came. The future could also be divined by interpreting the signs that the gods sent, such as the flight of birds, eating habits of chickens, and the condition of the entrails, especially the liver, of sacrificial animals (such divination was practiced in the recently excavated city of Mari on the upper Euphrates, but see also Ezek. 21:21). Necromancy and dreams Calling up the dead (necromancy) has survived to our day, as has the interpretation of dreams, which were believed to be major vehicles by which the gods sent messages. The casting of lots to determine the will of the gods was practiced all through the recorded history of humankind. So we read that God appeared to Abraham at the oak tree of Moreh (Gen. 12:6-7) and that the flight of arrows foretold a victory to King Joash (2 Kings 13:14-19). Saul resorted to necromancy when "the Lord did not answer him, either by dreams, or by Urim, or by prophets," and he had to consult the medium of Endor to bring up Samuel for him (1 Sam. 28)Note 3. Joseph interpreted the dreams of Pharaoh (Gen. 41); Daniel those of Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. 2, 4). Joseph, husband of Mary, received messages in dreams (Matt. 1:20-21; 2:13), as did the wise men (Matt. 2:12), and Pilate's wife (Matt. 27:13). This selection of references does not exhaust the importance of dreams, to which we may add visions (e.g., the vision of Samuel in the Temple, 1 Sam. 3; Peter's vision in Acts 10) which were so widespread that the word is used in the RSV more than one hundred times. During the early history of Israel, it was an accepted practice to "inquire of the Lord" (Judg. 1:1-2; 1 Sam. 10:22). This expression implies an oracle (similar to Delphi in Greece) where a question could be asked and a reply given by God through a medium. The Urim and Thummim The Urim and Thummim (or ephod) were also oracular media, but answers were restricted to "yes" or "no" (1 Sam. 23:9-12; 30:7-8; Num. 27:21). The same results could be gained by casting lots (Lev. 16:8; Num. 26:55-56), and the OT preserves stories that show the same thing was done by Phoenicians (Jon. 1:7), Persians (Esther 9:24-26), and Romans (Matt. 27:35). New Testament The last reference to this sort of divination in the NT comes from the time when the eleven apostles replaced Judas with Matthias by praying and casting lots (Acts 1:26). In spite of this seeming popularity, however, both magic and divination were strongly opposed in both OT and NT (Isa. 8:19; 44:25; 47:12-15; Deut. 18:10-12; Acts 8:9-24; 13:6-11; 19:13-20; Rev. 21:8; 22:15). The Bible teaches that humans have direct access to God, and the NT especially emphasizes that the role of demons and other intermediaries was made superfluous by Jesus Christ. |
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Mercy
| Mercy | p. 675 | Mercy, an attribute of both God and the good human being. Hebrew uses several words for "mercy," of which the most frequent is ḥesed, which means loving-kindness, mercy, love, loyalty, and faithfulness. Another Hebrew word and the Greek word for mercy in the NT refer to the emotion aroused by contact with undeserved suffering, that is, compassion and a deeply felt love for a fellow human being. In the OT mercy/loving-kindness is associated with the covenant obligation between God and humans. Humans must be faithful to the covenant and God binds himself to fidelity to the covenant by mercy and by grace (another Hebrew word used to mean mercy). Divine and human mercy are closely associated with justice and righteousness because all refer to behavior appropriate to a relationship. |
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Monotheism
| Monotheism | p. 701 | Definition Monotheism (mon'uh-thee-iz'uhm), the belief that there is only one deity. Most major religions of the biblical world were polytheistic: they had many deities. Israel was exceptional for its emphatic recognition of one God only. This was an essential affirmation of Judaism and part of the foundation of Christianity. Ancient Israel: peculiarities In Ancient Israel: It is not clear how Israel's monotheism originated. Certain trends in Egyptian religion [see e.g. Buccellati 2012 Aten; Assmann 1998 Moses; Pongratz- Leisten 2011 Revolutionary; Snell 2010 Religions, chapter 7; note of the author] of the second millennim B.C. tended to universalize one single deity, and theoretically these could have influenced Moses; but the wide difference in character between these phenomena and the God of Israel counts against their relevance. It is not intrinsically probable that external religious developments inspired this aspect of Israelite faith. Nor is it easy to see how monotheism could have evolved out of an earlier polytheism by some process of selection and rejection; there are not really enough texts to demonstrate this. It has often been argued that some historical experience, such as deliverance from Egypt, led Israel to recognize Yahweh as the uniquely active and saving deity. Yet no texts depict this event as a sudden or cataclysmic passage from faith in many gods to faith in one. It seems more natural to consider Hebrew monotheism as primitive but originally tribal. From the earliest relevant times there were Israelite groups for whom it was natural or axiomatic that a people had one deity who wastheir special god. This may not have been unique; the Moabites may have been similar. The groups in Israel that early insisted zealously on one God may have been small; traditions of the early Levites and the Kenites are a probable trace. Eventually the logic of monotheism succeeded in imposing itself upon the nation through dominant religious traditions. It came to be hardly thinkable that a Jew would be other than a monotheist. Biblical monotheism Biblical monotheism was group-centered and practical rather than theoretical. It did not prevent the occasional speaking of other gods as if they existed or had control of other lands or peoples (e.g., Exod 12:12; Num. 33:4; Josh. 24:15; Judg. 10:6). Elements of their mythology continued to be used. Names used for them were used for the true God also; but the proper and most used term for Israel's God was his personal name, Yahweh. Monotheism had an element of zealotry, insisting fiercely on the oneness of God and his name. And, considered seriously, this reduced other gods to nonentities, with no power or reality. Polytheism of some kind, especially perhaps in the form of a female consort for Yahweh, continued to attract many in Israel, and polemic against it in the Bible was continual (e.g., Judg. 6:30-32; Isa. 27:9). It was attacked as being foreign (Jer. 5:19), as a return to the old Canaanite gods (Judg. 10:6-9), as being linked with repellent ritual, sexual, and moral practices (Hos. 4:12-13), as being associated with the worship of objects of wood and stone (Isa. 44:9-17), and as having brought historical disaster on the people (Mic. 1:2-7). Above all, the ethical demands of Yahwistic religion were made to depend on the requirement of monotheism. These elements are especially interlinked in Deuteronomy, probably a reform document that unites the oneness of God (cf. the all-essential Shema of Deut. 6:4) with the insistence on the one and only holy place. Isaiah 40-55 combines a strong emphasis on monotheism with a stress on the role of the one God as creator of the world and ruler of all its parts. Polytheism is continually ridiculed, but in a way that suggests it is no longer deeply understood or felt as a serious temptation. After the return from Exile monotheism was scarcely challenged in Israel. |
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Morning rites
| Mourning rites | p. 710 | Definition Mourning rites, the rituals practiced upon the death of a relative or national figure or in times of national crisis. Death was acknowledged by rending the clothes and dressing in sackcloth. Old Testament These practices were followed by Jacob when he was presented with the bloody coat of his son Joseph (Gen. 38:34 [sic]). When Job was informed of the death of his children, he "rent his robe, shaved his head, and fell upon the ground, and worshiped" (Job 1:20), and his friends wept, rent their robes, sprinkled dust upon their heads, and sat on the ground with him for seven days and seven nights (Job 2:12-13; cf. 2 Sam. 13:31). In Micah we find mention of lamentations while naked (1:8) and the cutting off of one's hair (1:16; cf. Ezek. 27:30-31). Jeremiah expects the mourners tomake themselves bald and cut themselves (Jer. 16:16), while Leviticus specifically prohibits shaving, cutting the hair, tattooing, or the making of gashes in the skin on account of the dead (Lev. 19:27-28). Ezekiel was commanded by God not to mourn the death of his wife. "Bind on your turban, and put your shoes on your feet; do not cover your lips, nor eat the bread of mourners" (Ezek. 24:17). A contrast between times of mourning and times of joy (Isa. 61:3) enumerates the wearing of ashes and the abstention from anointing oil as signs of mourning. Further, no ornaments were to be worn (Exod. 33:4). Friends of the mourner sat in grief with him (Job 2:12-13) and gave him a meal of bread and wine to console him (Jer. 16:7). Formal lamentations or elegies (Heb. kinot) were recited, as at the death of Josiah when "singing men and singing women" performed as professional mourners (2 Chron. 35:25). Mourning rites are also attested in the Bible in times of national calamity. After the defeat of Ai, Joshua rent his clothes and put dust upon his head (Josh. 7:6) as did Mordecai when he received the news that Haman was planning to exterminate the Jewish people (Esther 4:1-3). In addition, Mordecai went out into the city "wailingwith a loud and bitter cry," and the Jews of the city fasted as well. Psalms 74, 79, and the book of Lamentations are elegies (Heb. kinot) for the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. Various mourning periods are specified in the narratives ranging from seven days (Gen. 50:10), to three weeks (Dan. 10:2), to "many days" (Gen. 37:34). Although a captive woman must mourn for a month (Deut. 21:13), a definite period of mourning is not commanded anywhere else in the Bible. Talmudic tradition The Talmud legislated several periods of mourning, each less intense than the previous one, to bring mourners gradually out of their grief lest they mourn excessively. The period of aninut lasted from the announcement of death until the burial. Mourners were forbidden to take meat or wine and to perform certain commandments, both as a sign of grief and as a way of giving full attention to the burial preparations. After the burial, the period of shiv'ah lasted for seven days. Mourners rent their clothes, sat upon the ground, and did not labor, receiving condolences from the community. During the period of sheloshim, the first thirty days, mourners did not cut their hair or attend social or festive gatherings. The entire year following the death of a parent was marked by the abstention from joyous events. |
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Myth
| Myth | pp. 723-724 | Myth (Gk. mythos), a word that occurs in the NT, where it refers to false and foolish stories that are to be rejected as misleading and dangerous: 1 Tim. 1:4 ("myths and endless genealogies that promote speculations rather than the divine training that is known by faith"); 4:7 ("old women's profane myths"); 2 Tim. 4:4 (opposite of "the truth"); Titus 1:14 ("Jewish myths and commandments of those who reject the truth"); and 2 Pet. 1:16 ("cleverly devised myths"). Scholars often use "myth" in a more general sense to refer to stories about supernatural beings or events, etiological stories about origins, stories that embody a group's ideals or sentiments, and the like. In the twentieth century, some, such as Rudolf Bultmann, have used "myth" to refer to thought and language that depict otherworldly realities in objective terms as though they were this-worldly phenomena and thus, at least in principle, subject to the same empirical methods of knowledge as any other objects. |
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Names of God in the Old Testament
| Names of God in the OT | pp. 736-738 | Names of God in the Old Testament. The names, titles, and metaphors for God in the OT reflect Israel's setting in the ancient Near East, the theological variety of OT traditions, and the social settings and institutions that shaped religious life. What unites these many appellations and titles, which are a central feature of Israel's dynamic religion, is not monotheism in a strict sense. While there were pre-exilic trajectories such as the emerging wisdom tradition in which monotheistic tendencies were present, the articulation of the existence of only one God found clear expression for the first time in Second Isaiah during the Exile (sixth century B.C.). Yet even before the Exile, Israelites believed that the God who had elected them, entered into community with them, and shaped their destiny also demanded their undivided obligation and loyalty. It was this conviction that led OT theologians (priests, prophets, court historic ans, and sages) to transform the variety of deities, divine appellations and epithets, and their defining characteristics into references to and descriptions of the God of Israel. The Personal Name for God In the ancient Near East, great significance was attached to personal names, for they revealed character and identity and signified existence. People's names indicate who they are, how they conduct themselves, and how their lives are lived. The revelation of a divine name and its continued use were of substantial importance for a people, for it was the means by which the deity could be approached and known. The name was the key to revelation. Yahweh The most important name for God in the OT is the Tetragrammaton, YHWH (occurs 6828 times), usually pronounced "Yahweh," though the known pronunciation was lost in the postexilic period. This name occurs in all writings except Qoheleth (Ecclesiastes), Esther, the dialogues of Job (chaps. 3-27), and probably Canticles (the Song of Solomon). Its short forms occur in many personal names (e.g., Isaiah, Jeremiah, Jonathan). Due to the increasing sanctity attached to the name and the consequent desire to avoid misuse, the title Adonai (Heb., "my great Lord") was pronounced in place of the tetragrammaton. In written texts, the vowels of Adonai were combined with the consonants YHWH to remind readers to pronounce Adonai instead of Yahweh. Thus, the incorrect hybrid "Jehovah" arose from Christian misunderstanding in the late Middle Ages. The respect for the sanctity of the personal name of God is often reflected in modern Jewish practice. The origin of the name Yahweh (usually translated "LORD" in English Bibles) remains uncertain. It is possible that the worship of Yahweh was borrowed from another people, perhaps the Kenites/Midianites. Even the biblical sources are divided at this point. The Yahwist source ("J") traces to the primeval period the revelation of the name Yahweh to human beings (Gen. 4:26), while the Elohist source ("E") and the Priestly source ("P") honor Moses as the first to receive the knowledge of this name (Exod. 3:14 [E]; 6:2-3 [P]). In the latter two sources, this deity is identified with the God of the ancestors (Exod. 3:13, 15; 6:3-4). In both contexts, there is the look ahead to liberation from slavery and guidance into the land of Canaan. Whatever the specific meaning of Yahweh, this association with liberation provides of its theological import. The meaning of the name most probably derives from the imperfect form of the Hebrew verb "to be." In Exod. 3:14 (E), God responds to Moses' question about his identity with the ambiguous statement, "I am who [or what] I will be." In E's connection of the name with the Hebrew Qal (simple) stem of the "to be" verb, the meaning appears to connote divine mystery (cf. Gen. 32:22-32) and freedom. A variation of this same interpretation understands the name to signify God's presence. Another interpretation connects Yahweh with the Hebrew Hiphil (causative) verbal stem and thus understands God's name to mean "He causes to be what exists [or happens]"; i.e., Yahweh is creator and ruler of history. It is this latter meaning that is more likely. Through the Israelites' encounter with God in nature and history, faith in God as the one who created the world, shaped human destiny, elected them to be the covenant people, and liberated them from slavery was actualized. Each pronouncement of the name Yahwehwas a succinct expression of this faith. In worship, God is accessible and encountered by this name. Through the revelation of this name, God makes community possible. Through this name, God both graciously gives and jealously sets forth the divine claim. Yahweh Sabaoth This compound name, often rendered as "Lord of Hosts," occurs 279 times in the OT. Sabaoth derives from a Hebrew word meaning "hosts" that may refer to earthly hosts, i.e., armies, or to heavenly hosts, i.e., armies comprised of stars, angels, and even deities stripped of power. Taken in the sense of "hosts" or armies, the name may have originated in holy war and thus could have expressed a polemic against astral cults: Yahweh rules the heavenly armies. The name was eventually understood as a plural of intensity, "Lord Almighty," or an abstract plural, "powerfulness," thus neutralizing the existence of the celestial gods. The Septuagint (LXX) captures this more abstract meaning in its translation, "Lord Almighty." Generic Names for God
Social Titles for God: The changing social constructions of Israel also provided important titles for God.
Royal Titles: Other important titles derived from the Israelite family, including father (Deut. 32:6), brother (1 Sam. 14:3: Ahijah [Heb., "brother of Yahweh"]), kinsman (Gen. 31:41: "kinsman [or fear] of Isaac"), and redeemer (Ps. 19:14). These titles may have originated in patriarchal religion where the personal deity of the head of the clan became the protector of the group (Exod. 3:6: "the God of my father"). The "redeemer" was the next of kin responsible for delivering the relative from hard times (Lev. 25:25). While God is not explicitly called "mother" or "sister," the OT does use feminine images to speak of God. God is depicted as a mother who conceives, bears, and gives birth to Israel (Num. 11:12; Deut. 32:18) and as a midwife (Ps. 22:9-10). These images demonstrate that the OT does not limit and confine God to the masculine gender. |
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New Year Festival
| New Year Festival | p. 756 | In Israel New Year Festival (Heb. Rosh Hashanah, "the beginning [lit. 'head'] of the year"), the festival celebrated on the first day of the month of Tishri (Sept.-Oct.), the seventh month of the Jewish calendar. Basic regulations for the observance of the New Year Festival appear in Lev. 23:23-25 and Num. 29:1-6. These texts refer to the festival as "a holy convocation" or "the day of trumpet blasts." It is a day of rest on which no work is to be done. Sacrificial offerings include one young bull, one ram, and seven male lambs together with their respective cereal offerings. In addition, a male goat is to be sacrificed as a sin offering. There is some confusion in the biblical tradition concerning the New Year Festival. The first of Tishri is nowhere designated as New Year's Day in the Bible. The term Rosh Hashanah appears only in Ezek. 40:1 where it refers to the general time of the year, but not specifically to the New Year Festival. According to Exod. 12:2, the month of Abib, later known as Nisan (March-April), is the first month of the year, but no New Year Festival is prescribed for the first of Nisan. The first of Nisan, however, is the beginning of the eleven-day Babylonian New Year Festival. This has prompted some scholars to suggest that the biblical New Year originally fell on the first of Tishri but at some time, probably during the Babylonian exile, the observance shifted to the first of Nisan to conform with Babylonian practice. Others argue that the original New Year was in the spring and later shifted to the autumn. A third position distinguishes two types of New Years. The first of Nisan was the regnal New Year, by which the reigns of kings were reckoned, and the first of Tishri was the religious or agricultural New Year for reckoning the liturgical calendar. In this respect, it is noteworthy that the Mishnah (Rosh. Hash. 1:1) identifies four New Years, including the first of Nisan, the New Year for kings and festivals, and the first of Tishri, the New Year for agriculture and reckoning the reigns of foreign kings. In the Ancient Near East Another issue concerns the relation of the biblical New Year Festival to the Babylonian New Year or akitu festival. This festival, held in the spring from the first to the eleventh of Nisan, emphasized the renewal of creation and kingship. The celebration featured a liturgical recitation and reenactment of the Babylonian creation epic in which Marduk, the city god of Babylon, defeated the chaos monster Tiamat and set the cosmos in order. The festivities also included a ritual procession around the city, a ritual humiliation of the king, and a ritual marriage of Marduk atop the ziggurat of Babylon. At the end of the festival, the king received the tablets of destiny that assured his rule for another year. Some scholars have attempted to argue that a similar New Year Festival was observed in Jerusalem during the monarchical period, but the evidence does not support such a claim. It is more likely that the biblical New Year Festival was a harvest celebration associated with the Day of Atonement (Lev. 23:26-32; Num. 29:7-11) and the Festival of Booths (Lev. 23:33-43; Num. 29:12-38; Deut. 16:13-15; cf. Exod. 23:16; 34:22). |
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Oracles
| Oracles | p. 786-787 | Oracle, a message from a god, usually in response to an inquiry; also the sacred precincts whose powers made it possible for the oracle prophet to consult the god. The Greco-Roman world knew three types of oracles: the oracle obtained through the casting of lots; the dream oracle obtained by sleeping in the sacred precincts, usually connected with healing; and the inspired oracle by which an oracle-prophet responded to inquiries. Though oracles were associated with a place, other prophets, diviners, and soothsayers might be employed by the state to give advice and to travel with the army, or they might set up practice in the local marketplace. The lot type of oracle occurs in the OT as urim and thummim (1 Sam. 14:41; 28:6; Exod. 28:29; Deut. 33:8; Lev. 8:7; Num. 27:21). Acts 1:26 reports that lots were cast to decide who would replace Judas, who committed suicide after betraying Jesus. Dream oracles are reflected in Saul's attempt to consult Samuel before a battle (1 Sam. 28:7-25) and the interpretation of dreams by "the wise" (Gen. 40:8; 41:25, 39; Dan. 2:19-47; 5:11-12). They guide Joseph (Matt. 1:20; 2:13, 19) and the early community (Acts 10:10, 30; 9:10). Inspired oracles could either respond to inquiries or be unsolicited prophecies. Some Israelite prophets were attached to the Temple. Other "free prophets" pronounced oracles of salvation and judgment in a cultic setting (cf. Jer. 4:10-12; Ezek. 18:9-13). Paul relates a healing oracle (2 Cor. 12:9) and oracles about the last days (1 Cor. 15:51-52; 1 Thess. 4:16-17a). Other oracles predict suffering (1 Thess. 3:4; Acts 21:11; 11:28; 18:9-10; 23:11; 27:23-24). |
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People(s)
| People, peoples | p. 827 | People, peoples, terms used to translate a number of Hebrew and Greek terms referring to different kinds of social, ethnic, or cultural collectivities (the KJV does not use the plural "peoples" except in Rev. 10:11 and 17:15, causing some confusion cleared up by the RSV, which uses both "people" and "peoples"; see esp. Ps. 67:4; Isa. 55:4; 60:2). Interest in the origins of the various peoples of the world is evident in genealogies (Gen. 5, 10) and in the Tower of Babel story about the development of different languages (Gen. 11). In neither of these instances, however, are there careful distinctions drawn between geography and ethnography. Genesis 10 reflects an important division between peoples based on language groups. Semitic (from Shem) peoples (speaking Hebrew and Aramaic) were prominent in Palestine. Other Semitic peoples spoke Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) and dialects of Arabic (Minaean, Sabaean, and Ethiopie). The Egyptians, for the most part, constituted a Hamitic (from Ham) group. Indo-Aryans (from Japheth) constituted a third major division. The most important use of the term "people" (Heb. 'am) in the OT is as a sociocultural designation for the social entirety of Israel, in contrast to the term "nation" (Heb. gôy), which is used chiefly as a political term. This distinction is evident in Num. 23:9. "Lo, [Israel is] a people ['am] dwelling alone, and not reckoning itself among the nations [gôyim]." Israel is often simply called "the people" (Heb. ha'am) or "the people of Yahweh" (Heb. 'am yêhwâh; Judg. 5:11, 13; 1 Sam. 2:24). In the NT "the people of God" is sometimes used to describe the "old Israel" (Heb. 11:25; Matt. 1:21; Luke 1:68; Rom. 11:1-2) but is more importantly used as a designation of the church (Rom. 9:25-26; 2 Cor. 6:14; Titus 2:14). In several instances in the OT "the people" refers to the community acting with authority in making covenants or declaring war (Judg. 5:2; 21:2, 15; 1 Sam. 4:4; 14:45). "The people" also designates a juridical community (Exod. 22:28; 23:11). Primary subgroups within Israel are also called "a people" ('am; Joseph in Josh. 17:14-17; Zebulun in Judg. 5:18). The phrase "people of the land"Note 4 occurs frequently in the OT, especially in Jeremiah, Ezekiel, 2 Kings, and 2 Chronicles, where it is probably a term designating the qualified male citizenry as opposed to the ruling class. In Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezra 10:2, 11; Neh. 10:30) it becomes a derogatory term aimed at those who were ignorant and nonobservant Jews by the standards of Ezra and Nehemiah. |
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Polytheism
| Polytheism | p. 865 | Polytheism (pol'ee-thee-iz'uhm), the belief in the existence of numerous gods. In the environment of the Bible most societies were polytheistic: there were "many gods and many lords" (1 Cor. 8:5). Different deities had different functions, associations, characters, and mythologies. Some were male, some female, and they had individual personal names. They might be grouped in families and generations; the younger gods might overcome and displace the older. Theomachy, war among the gods, could have an important role, not least in creation stories: a younger god defeated an older, monstrous deity and from its body fashioned the world. The variety among the gods did not exclude elements of rank and leadership; but leadership did not always mean complete supremacy. Polytheistic religions are known in detail from ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome; particularly relevant for the OT is the Canaanite polytheism of Ugarit (cf. also the later evidence of Philo of Byblos [ca. A.D. 63-141]), in which occur divine names known also from the Bible: El, Elyon, Baal, Anath, Athirat (cf. Heb. Asherah), Dagon. This Canaanite mythology stressed the elements of conflict, sexuality, fecundity, the mountain of the gods, and the building of the palace. The OT from early times opposed the entire ethos of polytheism and its mythologies. Certain echoes of it continue in the various names for God, perhaps in the plural form Elohim (Heb., "God"), in the concept of the "sons of God" or court of heavenly beings, in the imagery of battles with hostile superhuman powers, in the occasional recognition that another land is the sphere of another god. But for Israel there was only one God, and sole devotion to this one God was a paramount essential: to follow or serve "other gods" was a cardinal offense, emphasized particularly in Deuteronomy and in Isaiah 40-55. It is repeatedly stated, however, that large groups of Israelites committed this offense; perhaps not so many really did so. Polemic against polytheism was partly an internal argument among the Israelites: it reinforced the theology and the ethical demands of the God of Israel. Finally hostility to polytheism tends to become caricature and ridicule: it ceases to include any real analysis of polytheism or any profound understanding of its workings or its attractions. Rejection of it became a standard constituent of Jewish life and it ceased to form a real temptation for many Jews. |
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Prayer
| Prayer | pp. 875-876 | Prayer, the act of petitioning, praising, giving thanks, or confessing to God; it is expressed by several different words in both the OT and the NT. Prayer can be individual or corporate, audible or silent. It is conditioned by the biblical understanding of God as a personal being who hears the prayers of his people (1 Kings 9:3; Pss. 34:15; 65:2; Matt. 7:11; 1 John 5:15). In the Old Testament The earliest instances of prayer in the OT are conversations between persons and God. Such conversations take place between God and Adam (Gen. 3:9-12), Abraham (Gen. 15:1-6), and Moses (Exod. 3:1-4:17). It is said that God spoke to Moses "face to face, as a man speaks to his friend" (Exod. 33:11). Kings (1 Sam. 23:2-4; 1 Kings 3:5-14) and prophets (1 Sam. 3:4-9; Isa. 6:1-13; Jer. 1:4-19) are portrayed as conversation partners with God (frequently the divine presence is by way of visions or dreams). The forms of prayer in the OT include petitions for guidance, requests for divine help, intercessions, praise and thanksgiving, and confession. Prayers for guidance are offered by Isaac (Gen. 24:12-14), Moses (Num. 11:11-15), and most notably by Solomon, who asks for wisdom (1 Kings 3:5-14). Requests include prayers for the necessities of life (1 Kings 8:22-53; Prov. 30:8), deliverance from enemies (Gen. 32:11; Pss. 31:15; 59:1), and retribution (Judg. 16:28; Ps. 137:7; Jer. 17:18). Intercessions are offered by the patriarchs and Moses (Gen. 18:22-32; Exod. 5:22-23; 32:11-13), David (2 Sam. 12:16-17), and various prophets (Amos 7:1-6; Ezek. 9:8; 11:13). While such intercessions are generally for the whole people, there are instances of intercessions for individuals (1 Kings 17:20-21; 2 Kings 4:32-33) and Gentile governmental authority as well (Jer. 29:7; Ezra 6:10). Praise and thanksgiving are offered to God for his steadfast love (Pss. 100:4-5; 108:3-4), his creation of the world, his rule over it, and his benevolent care for all that he has made (Pss. 145-150). Confession is prescribed for the annual Day of Atonement (Lev. 16:21), but it can be made whenever an offense against God has occurred. Confession is usually made by the confessor on behalf of the people (Exod. 32:31-32; Neh. 9:16-37; Dan. 9:20) or by the community (Judg. 10:10), but there are instances of individual confession (2 Sam. 24:17; Ps. 51). Confession is made in the certainty of God's promises to forgive (Lev. 26:40-45; Isa. 1:18; Mic. 7:18-19). |
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Priests
| Priests | p. 880 | Priests, the specially designated officials who served in the Temple performing ritual functions and conducting the sacrificial services. The Hebrew word kohen, also attested in Phoenician, Punic, Ugaritic, Arabic, and Aramaic, designates not only Jewish priests but also those who served in temples dedicated to other gods. Melchizedek, the king of Salem, was also a Canaanite priest (Gen. 14:18); Asenath, the wife of Joseph, was the daughter of an Egyptian priest (Gen. 41:45); Jehu assembled the priests of Baal (2 Kings 10:19-20), and the like. A term that appears only three times in the Bible, kemarim, always designates idolatrous priests such as those who worshiped the gods of the Canaanites, Ammonites, and Assyrians (Zeph. 1:4). There is no feminine form of kohen. Bat kohen (daughter of a priest) refers to a woman of a priestly family. |
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Prophet
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Prophetess
| Prophetess | p. 889 | Prophetess (Heb. nebi'ah), a woman who serves as a channel of communication between the human and divine worlds. In their prophetic behavior and religious functions they are not distinguished from their male counterparts. According to some traditions, prophetesses played a central role in Israel's early history. The prophetess Miriam is said to have composed a song to celebrate Israel's crossing of the sea (Exod. 15:20-21), while the prophetess Deborah "judged" Israel and helped to lead the people in battle (Judg. 4:1-10). In a much later period, the prophetess Huldah appears as an important religious official to whom King Josiah sent messengers to inquire of God (2 Kings 22:14-20). In Nehemiah's account of the reconstruction of Jerusalem, he reports opposition from several prophets and the prophetess Noadiah (Neh. 6:10-14). |
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Proverb
| Proverb | pp. 889-890 | Proverb (prov'uhrb), a short, popular saying that communicates a familiar truth or observation in an expressive and easily remembered form. The term is applied to a variety of sayings in the Bible. The most common example is the folk saying drawn from human experience and characterized by picturesque, insightful, witty, or even amusing comment on human behavior or experience (e.g., Prov. 16:18; 27:15; 29:2; Luke 4:23). The majority of these proverbs are composed of two lines in a poetic form that closely links the first line with the second (a couplet). They occur in several distinct forms: those based on direct correspondence or association (Judg. 8:21; Prov. 9:10; Gal. 6:7), on contrast (Prov. 11-13; 18:23; Jer. 23:28; John 1:46), on comparison (Gen. 10:9; Prov. 20:2; Ezek. 16:44; Hos. 4:9), on what is futile or absurd (Prov. 1:17; Amos 6:12; Jer. 13:23), on the characterization of certain persons (the fool, Prov. 1:7, 32; the adulteress, Prov. 7:6-27; the lazy, Prov. 6:6-11; 24:30-34; 26:15), on proper priorities (1 Sam. 25:22; Prov. 22:1; 25:4; 27:5), and on the consequences of actions (Jer. 31:29; Hos. 8:7; Prov. 26:27) or character (Prov. 15:13; 30:32-33; 2 Pet. 2:22). However, many of the biblical proverbs are not simply maxims or truisms but express religious and ethical interpretations of Israelite faith (e.g., Prov. 3:1-12, 27-35; 6:16-19; 14:12), and even the more humanistic of the proverbs were collected not simply for their practical value but to provide instruction in the proper ordering of one's life under God (note Prov. 1:2-7). The term "proverb" can also refer to a variety of speech and literary forms: a figurative saying that was not easily understood, similar to a parable or allegory (so translated in many versions; Ezek. 17:2; 20:49 [sic]; cf. John 10:6; 16:25, 29); poetry in ode or ballad form (Num. 21:27-30); a teaching psalm, used with riddle, dealing with a perplexing moral problem (Ps. 49:4); a wisdom discourse (Job 13:12; cf. 27:1); a byword used to taunt or jeer (Deut. 28:37; Jer. 24:9; cf. Isa. 14:4); or a lament (often translated "taunt song" in newer versions; Mic. 2:4; Hab. 2:6) [Cf. Note 5]. |
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Sacrifice
| Sacrifice | pp. 1222-1225 (under Worship) | Ideal Israelite worship is depicted in the Priestly instructions of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. Its most prominent feature is sacrifice. Sacrifices were brought as gifts to God; the Hebrew term for cereal offering also means "present" (cf. Gen. 32:19, where Jacob offers a large present to Esau to win his favor) or "tribute" (e.g., 2 Sam. 8:2). In addition, the blood of the sin and guilt offerings was used to cleanse the sanctuary. The most important part of any animal sacrifice was the disposal of the blood at the altar. Whether dashed against its sides, or smeared on its horns, this ritual act made the sacrifice valid; in fact, it distinguished sacrifice from mere slaughter. [...] In exchange for his services, the priest received some portion of the sacrifice. Cattle, sheep, goats, doves, and pigeons were the only kinds of animals that could be offered, and vegetable offerings used wheat, barley, olive oil, wine, and frankincense. [...] Sacrificial animals had to be unblemished; that is, they could not be diseased or injured or castrated (see Lev. 22:17-25). The burnt offering (Lev. 1) was the commonest and most general sacrifice. Appropriate for atonement or thanksgiving, its purpose, basically, was to win God's favor. It was probably the oldest kind of sacrifice (mentioned throughout the Bible) and played a major role in public worship (Num. 28-29) and rites of cleansing (Lev. 12:6, 8; 14:19, 22; 15:15, 30; 16:24). The animal offered had to be male (except birds). The animal was entirely burned on the altar, except for the hide, which went to the priest (Lev. 7:8). [...] The term "sin offering" is somewhat misleading. The purpose of this sacrifice (Lev. 4-5:13) was not to atone for any kind of sin, as the name seems to imply. Crimes against other people were dealt with by appropriate punishments that did not involve sacrifice, while deliberate crimes against God (done "with a high hand") could not be sacrificially atoned for at all (Num. 15:30-31). Rather, the sin offering was used to cleanse the sanctuary of impurity. For this reason it was regularly offered at festivals (Num. 28:15, 22, 30; 29:5, 11, 16, 19). [...] The guilt offering (Lev. 5:14-6:7) was brought when one had desecrated some holy thing (Lev. 5:14) or perjured oneself (Lev. 6:2-5). Its purpose was the reparation of damages. [...] The cereal offering (Lev. 2) was a vegetable counterpart to the burnt offerings. It could be raw, in which case frankincense was added, or cooked in various ways (baked, boiled, fried), but it could not be leavened or sweetened (Lev. 2:11). Oil was present whether the offering was cooked or raw) [cf. also Brelich 1976 Prolegomeni]. |
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Shema
| Shema | p. 1010 | Shema (shuh-mah'; Heb., "Hear you ..."), the name of and first Hebrew word of the classical Jewish declaration of faith found in Deut. 6:4, which reads (literally), "Hear you, Israel, Yahweh our God, Yahweh is one" — although some have translated the last clause "Yahweh alone." The last letters of the first and last words of this verse are written in Hebrew Bibles in oversized script, thereby forming the Hebrew word "witness" to indicate that by this verse Jews testify to the oneness and uniqueness of their God — a difference in both quantity and quality from polytheism. By the second century A.D. the Shema prayer consisted of Deut. 6:4-9; 11:13-21; and Num. 15:37-41 together with special benedictions to be recited every morning and evening (based upon Deut. 6:7). In traditional Jewish practice, the Shema is written in the phylacteries and mezuzah. As a watchword of faith and faithfulness the Shema constitutes the climax of the saying recited before death. This declaration was also recited during martyrdom. Jesus identified the Shema as the first commandment in the law (Mark 12:29). |
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Sin
| Sin | p. 1026 | Sin, that which is in opposition to God's benevolent purposes for his creation [cf. Buccellati 2013 Trinity]. According to the biblical writers, sin is an ever-present reality that enslaves the human race and has corrupted God's created order. The concept of sin is first and foremost a religious concept, because all sin is ultimately against God, God's laws, God's creation, God's covenant, and God's purposes. It is the basic corrupting agent in the entire universe. There are numerous Hebrew and Greek words used to designate sin in the biblical writings. Perhaps the most basic is a Hebrew word meaning "revolt" or "transgression" and indicating a deliberate act of defiance against God. This idea lies at the heart of the Genesis account of the beginning of sin (Gen. 3:1-7), where the essential problem lies in the desire of the humans to "be like God." All sin is an act of idolatry, the attempt to replace the Creator with someone or something else, usually one's own self or one's own creation. Paul understood this very well, as he indicates in Rom. 1:18-3:20: all humankind lies under condemnation because all are idolators of one type or another. |
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Suffering
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Tablets of the Law
| Tablets of the Law | p. 1088 | Tablets of the Law, the two stone tablets of the Ten Commandments inscribed by God on Mt. Sinai (Exod. 24:12; 31:18; 32:15-16; Deut. 9:10-11; 10:1-6; Exod. 34:28 is ambiguous). The first set was broken by Moses in his anger at the sight of the Golden Calf (Exod. 32:19). The second set was placed in the Ark of the Covenant. |
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Temples
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Theophany
| Theophany | p. 1140 | Theophany (thee-of'uh-nee), the manifestation of God. The OT contains a number of narratives of or poetic allusions to God revealing himself to men and women. Theophanies frequently are associated with particular holy places, representing the foundation legend of a sanctuary (Gen. 12:6-7; 13:18; 18:1; 28:1-17; Exod. 40:34-38) or the call of a prophet within it (Isa. 6:1-8). They tend to follow a literary pattern with Canaanite roots: God appears, frequently as divine warrior or king, surrounded by fire or in splendor (Deut. 33:2; Pss. 18:8; 104:2; Ezek. 1:27-28; Hab. 3:4), and sometimes riding like Baal upon the wind and clouds (Pss. 18:10; 68:33; 104:3); nature trembles (Exod. 19:18; Judg. 5:4-5; Pss. 18:7; 68:8; Hab. 3:6, 10) or the recipient responds with dread (Gen. 15:12; 28:17; Exod. 3:6; Job 42:5-6; Isa. 6:5; Hab. 3:16); and, as a result, nature becomes fertile (Pss. 68:8-10; 104:10-23; Isa. 35:2, 6-7), or God saves and rules (Deut. 33:5; Judges 5; Pss. 18:16-19; 29:10; 68:19-20; Isa. 35:4-6; Hab. 3:13), or the recipient is given a revelation or call (Gen. 15:12-16; Exod. 3; Isa. 6:8-13; Jer. 1:4-19; Ezek. 1:1-3:15). Elijah's encounter with God in a "still small voice" rather than in earthquake, wind, and fire (1 Kings 19:9-18) may represent a rejection of Canaanite imagery associating God with the forces of nature. Common to many of these passages is the combined experience of dread and fascination that is characteristic of awe before the holy. In the extreme, to see God's face brings death (Gen. 32:30; Exod. 33:20; Isa. 6:5). |
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Wisdom
| Wisdom | pp. 1214-1215 | Wisdom, a term in the Hebrew Bible (OT)standing for many things ranging from the technical skill of the artisan (Exod. 36:8) to the art of government (1 Kings 3:12, 28). It also designates simple cleverness (2 Sam. 14:2), especially the practical skill of coping with life (Prov. 1; 5; 11; 14), and the pursuit of a lifestyle of proper ethical conduct (Prov. 2:9-11 and throughout). Wisdom is also seen as belonging properly to God (Job 28), associated with creation (Prov. 8:22-31), and even identified with the Torah or Law (Ecclus. 24:23). Wisdom Literature in the Old Testament In the Hebrew Bible, "wisdom literature" is generally understood to refer to Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes; among the Apocrypha, it includes Ecclesiasticus (The Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach) and The Wisdom of Solomon. The extent to which other parts of the Bible can be described as "wisdom" (e.g., the story of Joseph in Gen. 37-50) is disputed, but certain Psalms seem to betray wisdom influence (e.g., Ps. 37). The relationship between wisdom and apocalyptic and the extent to which the latter was influenced by the former also remains a moot point. This literature has characteristic traits: (1) There is an absence of reference to the typical salvation beliefs, such as the patriarchal promises, the Exodus, the Sinai covenant, etc. (2) The object of the Hebrew sage is to transmit the lessons of experience, so that one may learn to cope with life. The teaching inculcates certain goals, such as self-control (especially in speech), honesty, diligence, etc. If one follows the counsels of the sage, wisdom will bring life; its opposite, folly — a practical, not merely intellectual folly — brings destruction. (3) A characteristic problem is retribution, the way in which the wise/foolish (i.e., virtuous/wrongdoers) are treated. Proverbs upholds the optimistic view shared by such books as Deuteronomy but disputed by Job and Ecclesiastes. (4) Certain literary forms are cultivated: the discrete, separate saying, which is usually a pithy expression in two parallel lines; the admonition, whether positive or negative, which is often accompanied by a motivation; wisdom poems (typical of Prov. 1-9); and reflections (characteristic of Ecclesiastes). Job is dominated by disputation speeches between the protagonist and the three friends (chaps. 3-31). Solomon was famous in biblical tradition for his wisdom (1 Kings 4:29-34); hence Proverbs and Ecclesiastes came to be attributed to him. External (Egypt and ANE) influences The origins of Israelite wisdom are presumed to lie in the insights, oral and written, of the family and clan and also of the wise men who could have provided training for courtiers in Jerusalem. The existence of some kind of "school" may be inferred from similar institutions in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Wisdom, in fact, is an international possession, cultivated throughout the ancient Near East, and many parallels to Israelite wisdom, both remote and close, have been proposed (e.g., the teaching of the Egyptian sage AmenemopetNote 5 and Prov. 22:17-24:22). An outstanding trait of biblical wisdom is the personification of Lady Wisdom in Proverbs 1; 3; and 9 (cf. Job 28; Ecclus. 24). She is described as originating from God and is associated with creation (Prov. 3:19; 8:22-31). According to G. von Rad, she is "the self-revelation of creation" and, one might add, the revelation of God in and through creation (Ps. 19:1). Wisdom theology is a theology of creation, for it was within the area of creation and human experience that the Hebrew sages operated. |
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Worship
| Worship | pp. 1222-1225 | Worship, the attitude and acts of reverence to a deity. The term "worship" in the OT translates the Hebrew word meaning "to bow down, prostrate oneself," a posture indicating reverence and homage given to a lord, whether human or divine. The concept of worship is expressed by the term "serve." In general, the worship given to God was modeled after the service given to human sovereigns; this was especially prominent in pagan religions. In these the deity's image inhabited a palace (temple) and had servants (priests) who supplied food (offered sacrifices), washed and anointed and clothed it, scented the air with incenses, lit lamps at night, and guarded the doors to the house. Worshipers brought offerings and tithes to the deity, said prayers and bowed down, as one might bring tribute and present petitions to a king. Indeed the very purpose of human existence, in Mesopotamian thought, was to provide the gods with the necessities of life. Although Israelite worship shared many of these external forms, even to calling sacrifices "the food of God" (e.g., Lev. 21:6), its essence was quite different. As the prophets pointed out, God could not be worshiped only externally. To truly honor God, it was necessary to obey his laws, the moral and ethical ones as well as ritual laws. To appear before God with sacrifices while flouting his demands for justice was to insult him (cf. Isa. 1:11-17; Amos 5:21-22). God certainly did not need the sacrifices for food (Ps. 50:12-13); rather sacrifice and other forms of worship were offered to honor God as king. Sacrifice Ideal Israelite worship is depicted in the Priestly instructions of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. Its most prominent feature is sacrifice. Sacrifices were brought as gifts to God; the Hebrew term for cereal offering also means "present" (cf. Gen. 32:19, where Jacob offers a large present to Esau to win his favor) or "tribute" (e.g., 2 Sam. 8:2). In addition, the blood of the sin and guilt offerings was used to cleanse the sanctuary. The most important part of any animal sacrifice was the disposal of the blood at the altar. Whether dashed against its sides, or smeared on its horns, this ritual act made the sacrifice valid; in fact, it distinguished sacrifice from mere slaughter. Leviticus 17 requires all animals eligible as offerings to be sacrificed, rather than simply slaughtered (see vv. 3-4). In addition, the animal's suet (the hard fat on the entrails) and kidneys belonged to God and therefore had to be burned on the altar (Lev. 3:16). Only a priest could perform these essential acts since only he could officiate at the altar (Lev. 3:5, 11). In exchange for his services, the priest received some portion of the sacrifice. Cattle, sheep, goats, doves, and pigeons were the only kinds of animals that could be offered, and vegetable offerings used wheat, barley, olive oil, wine, and frankincense. All offerings were salted (Lev. 2:13; cf. Ezek. 43:24). Sacrificial animals had to be unblemished; that is, they could not be diseased or injured or castrated (see Lev. 22:17-25). The burnt offering (Lev. 1) was the commonest and most general sacrifice. Appropriate for atonement or thanksgiving, its purpose, basically, was to win God's favor. It was probably the oldest kind of sacrifice (mentioned throughout the Bible) and played a major role in public worship (Num. 28-29) and rites of cleansing (Lev. 12:6, 8; 14:19, 22; 15:15, 30; 16:24). The animal offered had to be male (except birds). The animal was entirely burned on the altar, except for the hide, which went to the priest (Lev. 7:8). The peace offering (Lev. 3) was brought when one wished to eat meat. It could be a bull or a cow, or a sheep or a goat (male or female). The officiating priest received the right thigh, while the animal's breast was shared by all the priests (Lev. 7:31-34). The person bringing the sacrifice received the rest of the animal, which had to be eaten within one or two days (Lev. 7:15; 19:6-8). The peace offering was further subdivided, according to purpose, into the thank offering, free-will offering, and votive offering (Lev. 7:11-18). Psalm 107 mentions four occasions for which a thank offering would be appropriate: successful passage through the desert, release from prison, recovery from a serious illness, or surviving a storm at sea. The votive offering was given to repay a vow (cf. 2 Sam. 15:7-8), while the free-will offering needed no special occasion. These offerings were distinguished ritually, in that the thank offering required different kinds of breads to accompany it (Lev. 7:12) and had to be eaten in one day, whereas the votive offering and the free-will offering could be left over one night and finished on the following day. Under no circumstances could a sacrifice be eaten after the second day (Lev. 7:15-18). The ordination offering was a special type of peace offering, whose blood was used as part of the ritual ordaining the high priest. Like the thank offering, it had a bread accompaniment and had to be eaten on the same day that it was offered (Exod. 29:19-28, 31-34; Lev. 8:22-29, 31-32). The term "sin offering" is somewhat misleading. The purpose of this sacrifice (Lev. 4-5:13) was not to atone for any kind of sin, as the name seems to imply. Crimes against other people were dealt with by appropriate punishments that did not involve sacrifice, while deliberate crimes against God (done "with a high hand") could not be sacrificially atoned for at all (Num. 15:30-31). Rather, the sin offering was used to cleanse the sanctuary of impurity. For this reason it was regularly offered at festivals (Num. 28:15, 22, 30; 29:5, 11, 16, 19). As a private offering, the sin offering (or, more properly, the purification offering) was brought when a person had unwittingly violated a prohibition (Lev. 4:2) or for rites of cleansing (Lev. 12:6; 14:19, 22; 15:15, 30; 16:3, 5; Num. 6:14, 16), or when one had forgotten to cleanse oneself (Lev. 5:2-3), or failed to fulfill a vow (Lev. 5:4), or had not responded to a public adjuration (Lev. 5:1). When both the sin offering and the burnt offering were to be offered, the sin offering always came first; the altar had to be cleansed before other sacrifices could be offered on it (cf. Lev. 9:7-21; 14:19). The animals used for the private sin offering varied with the status of the offender. The high priest or community as a whole offered a bull; a ruler offered a male goat, while a lay person brought a female goat or a ewe. The ritual also varied: when the community (or the high priest who represented it) had transgressed, the sanctuary itself was defiled; it was cleansed by sprinkling some of the bull's blood in front of the sanctuary veil and smearing it on the horns of the incense altar (Lev. 4:5-7, 16-18). The bull's meat could not be eaten, so it was burned outside the camp (Lev. 4:12, 21). In the case of an individual, whether ruler or commoner, only the outer altar was defiled. It was cleansed by smearing the blood of the goat or ewe on the altar's horns, and the priest received the meat of the animal. In certain cases there was a provision for a less costly sin offering if the person were poor (Lev. 5:7-13; 12:8; 14:21-22). The guilt offering (Lev. 5:14-6:7) was brought when one had desecrated some holy thing (Lev. 5:14) or perjured oneself (Lev. 6:2-5). Its purpose was the reparation of damages. The sacrifice consisted of a ram, offered in a manner similar to the peace offering (Lev. 7:2-7), but with the necessary addition of the offerer's confession of guilt, and the repayment of damages, plus a twenty percent fine. The priest who offered it received the meat (Lev. 7:7). Uniquely, this sacrifice could even be paid for in money (Lev. 5:18; cf. 2 Kings 12:16). It was always a private sacrifice. In two special cases, that of the healed leper being cleansed and that of a Nazirite whose vow was desecrated by accidental contact with a corpse (which made one impure), the guilt offering was a male lamb (Lev. 14:12, 21; Num. 6:9, 12). Furthermore, in the leper's case, the blood of the guilt offering was also applied to the person's extremities as part of the cleansing ritual (Lev. 14:12-14, 25). The cereal offering (Lev. 2) was a vegetable counterpart to the burnt offerings. It could be raw, in which case frankincense was added, or cooked in various ways (baked, boiled, fried), but it could not be leavened or sweetened (Lev. 2:11). Oil was present whether the offering was cooked or raw. The flour used was usually wheat (semolina), but barley flour or parched grain could also be offered (Lev. 2:14). When the cereral offering was a poor person's substitute for the animal sin offering, the flour was offered dry, without oil and incense (Lev. 5:11; cf. also Num. 5:15). Only a handful of the cereal offering (together with all the incense, if present) was burned on the altar; the remainder went to the priest (Lev. 2:2-3; 6:14-16). The sole exception was the priest's cereal offering; it was entirely burned since a priest could not profit from his own offering (Lev. 6:23). According to Numbers 15 the burnt offering and the peace offering were normally accompanied by cereal offerings (mixed with oil) and wine libations ("drink offerings"). The amount of grain and wine depended on the type of animal being offered: the larger the species, the more grain and wine. Temple Ritual The daily ritual was as follows: every morning, the ashes on the sacrificial altar were cleared off and the fire was stoked (Lev. 6:10-13), and the daily burnt offering, a yearling male lamb, plus its accompanying cereal and drink offerings, was offered (Lev. 6:8-13; Exod. 29:38-42; Num. 28:3-8). The high priest, dressed in his priestly garments (Exod. 28:29, 30, 35, 38), entered the sanctuary, trimmed the oil lamps, and offered a specially formulated incense on the incense altar inside (Exod. 30:7-9, 34-36). Outside, he would offer a special cereal offering, composed of wheaten cakes cooked on a griddle (Lev. 6:19-23). In the evening, a second lamb was offered like the morning one, and the high priest again entered the sanctuary to trim the oil lamps (Lev. 24:1-4; cf. 1 Sam. 3:3) and burn incense. He would also offer the second half of the high-priestly cereal offering. Such was the daily routine. Every Sabbath day two additional lambs were offered, like the daily ones (Num. 28:9-10). Also, the high priest would replace the twelve loaves of bread (the Bread of Presence), which were arranged in two rows on the table inside the sanctuary, with frankincense on top (Lev. 24:5-9; cf. 1 Sam. 21:1-6). At the beginning of each month (the new moon) and at all the festivals the priests blew trumpets (Num. 10:8, 10) and additional sacrifices were offered, both burnt offerings and a sin offering (which was always a male goat; see Num. 28-29). Festival days (or the beginning and end of week-long festivals) were days of rest, like the Sabbath (Lev. 23:7-8, 21, 24, 27, 35, 36). On the Day of Atonement the people rested and fasted, and the high priest, wearing special garments for the occasion, performed the Day of Atonement ritual (Lev. 16), which cleansed the sanctuary of all impurity. It consisted of two sin offerings, one for the high priest and one for the people, whose blood was brought not only into the sanctuary but into the inner shrine itself, the Holy of Holies, where the Ark of God was kept. The high priest entered the Holy of Holies only after placing a pan of burning incense inside, to make a screen of smoke between him and the Ark (Lev. 16:13). After cleansing the sanctuary, the priest laid his hands on a living goat and confessed the people's sins, thereby transferring those sins to the goat, which was then sent away into the wilderness. Donations Donations: In addition to these public and private sacrifices, offered at regular seasons or at will, the people donated a tenth portion of their produce to the sanctuary. This tithe was given to the Levites, in exchange for their work in guarding and transporting the tabernacle (Num. 18:21-24). The Levites themselves gave a tithe of their tithe to the priests (Num. 18:26). Furthermore, the priests received the first fruits of all produce, including a sheaf of grain at the beginning of the harvest and two loaves of leavened bread at its end (Lev. 23:10-11, 17; cf. Num. 18:11), the firstborn of all livestock (Num. 18:12-13, 15-17), and the first part of the processed produce (flour, wine, oil; cf. Num. 15:17-21; 18:12). People might also voluntarily donate items to the sanctuary, which would then belong to the priests. If persons or nonsacrificial animals were donated, only the monetary value was paid (Lev. 27:1-8). Land, tithes of vegetable produce, and nonsacrificial animals could also be redeemed from the sanctuary by the donor, by paying the value plus a twenty percent penalty (Lev. 27:13, 19, 31). An extreme form of dedication was "devotion," which, when applied to cities, involved complete destruction (Num. 21:2-3; cf. Josh. 6:17-21). Anything so devoted could not be redeemed; persons who were devoted had to be killed (Lev. 27:28-29). A different kind of dedication of a person was the Nazirite vow (Num. 6). People who made this vow could not drink any alcoholic beverage or consume any product of the grapevine; nor could they cut their hair or shave. In fact, the hair was actually consecrated to God (Num. 6:5, 9, 18). The Nazirites were holy and hence were not supposed to become unclean. The vow was of limited duration, and at the end of the term a special ceremony was performed to return the Nazirite to ordinary, common status (Num. 6:13-20). Ritual Purity Persons participating in worship had to be ritually clean. Contact with a corpse (Num. 19) or animal carcasses (Lev. 11:8, 24-25, 31, 39), sexual emissions (Lev. 15), giving birth to a child (Lev. 12), and leprosy (Lev. 13) all caused a person to become unclean in various degrees. An unclean person could not eat sacrificial meat (Lev. 7:20), enter the sanctuary, or even handle tithes or other items belonging to God (Lev. 12:4). Cleansing was effected by bathing and washing one's clothes. Certain more severe states of impurity required additional rites of cleansing and might take several days to complete. Although one was excluded from worship, being unclean was not a crime. Failure to cleanse oneself after the period of impurity had passed, however, was sinful and necessitated bringing a sin offering (Lev. 5:2-3), since (prolonged) impurity defiled the sanctuary (cf. Lev. 16:19; Num. 19:20). To be eligible to officiate in the sanctuary, priests were required not only to be clean but unblemished (Lev. 21:17-23). Furthermore, they could not officiate while drunk (Lev. 10:9) or mourning (Lev. 10:6). They had to be properly dressed (Exod. 28:40-43); and before officiating at either the altar or inside the sanctuary they were to wash their hands and feet (Exod. 30:18-21; priests did not wear shoes: cf. Exod. 3:5; Josh. 5:15). Other Versions of Ritual Procedures The book of Deuteronomy presents a slightly modified (though much less detailed) version of the system described by the Priestly texts. The principal difference lies in Deuteronomy's insistence on a single sanctuary for the entire land of Israel to which all sacrifices were to be brought (cf. Deut. 12:5-14). As a result, Deuteronomy permitted profane slaughter of animals for meat (Deut. 12:15 vs. Lev. 17:2-4), since for many Israelites the distance to the sanctuary was too great (Deut. 12:20-21). There were also other, relatively minor differences in detail in Deuteronomy, regarding the Passover (Deut. 16:2 vs. Exod. 12:5; Deut. 16:7 vs. Exod. 12:9), tithes (Deut. 14:22-29 vs. Num. 18), and the priests' share of sacrifices (Deut. 18:2 vs. Lev. 7:31-32). Worship in Ezekiel's visionary temple (Ezek. 40-48) also differs somewhat from the Priestly system. For instance, Ezekiel calls for a purification of the temple on the first and seventh days of the first month, presumably in preparation for the Passover (Ezek. 45:18-20; cf. v. 21). He also mentions only a single daily burnt offering sacrificed each morning (Ezek. 46:13-15). Ezekiel's system was never actually put into effect, but it may reflect the thinking of certain priests of his time, since Ezekiel himself was a priest (Ezek. 1:3). |
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Notes
- Note 1: on this topic, cf. Buccellati 1966 Amorites. Back to text
- Note 2: This gesture of “lifting up the hands” closely remembers that of the “hand-lifting prayer” (šuilla) of the Akkadian tradition (see RlA and CASPO; cf. also Ebeling 1953 Gebetsserie and Frechette 2012 Mesopotamian. Back to text
- Note 3: This passage related to the necromantic practice executed by a sourcerer of Endor (called “the lady of the ôb“: 1 Sam 28:7: הִנֵּ֛ה אֵ֥שֶׁת בַּֽעֲלַת־אֹ֖וב בְּעֵ֥ין דֹּֽור [BHS] (cf. Bible Hub), “There is a woman in Endor who is a medium [NAB] [lit. ‘a woman of the ôb‘]”) to evoke Samuel to answer Saul’s enquiry can be a noteworthy parallel to necromantic practices attested at Urkesh/Tell Mozan (discovered by Giorgio Buccellati and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati), in the necromantic pit (A12) known with the Hurrian word ābi (see Urkesh/ābi and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati 2004). Back to text
- Note 4: on this topic, see Buccellati 1959 B O 3. Back to text
- Note 5: on this topic, see mostly Laisney, Vincent Pierre-Michel 2007, L’Enseignement d’Aménémopé, Studia Pohl: Series Maior 19, Roma: Pontificio Istituto Biblico. Cf. also the Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae (“Die Lehre des Amenemope”). To access this webpage, you need to click a first time on the hyperlink (there you will be asked to login as “guest”); then you can click on the same hyperlink a second time, reaching the webpage with the text. Back to text
Back to top: Paul Achtemeier et al. 1996 Harper